(Sangwoo Kim)
1iD
(Jihyeong Lee)
2
(Yeji Hong)
3
(Jinsup Kim)
4†iD
-
Member · Gyeongsang National University
(kimsangwoo@gnu.ac.kr)
-
Master Course · Gyeongsang National University
(2023210386@gnu.ac.kr)
-
Master Course · Gyeongsang National University
(hongyeji0618@gnu.ac.kr)
-
Member · Associate Professor · Gyeongsang National University
(Corresponding Author · jinsup.kim@gnu.ac.kr)
Copyright © 2021 by the Korean Society of Civil Engineers
Key words
Polyvinyl alcohol fiber, Biochar, Concrete, Mechanical properties
1. Introduction
In 2015, countries worldwide set a global goal to limit global warming to below 1.5°C
as part of the Paris Agreement, in response to the climate crisis. The construction
industry, which heavily relies on fossil fuels and consumes significant amounts of
energy, is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions during the production of
construction materials. Cement, in particular, is one of the most widely used construction
materials globally and accounts for approximately 5 % of global greenhouse gas emissions.
Therefore, developing eco-friendly construction materials within the construction
industry plays a crucial role in combating climate change.
Biochar, a carbon-rich solid byproduct obtained through the pyrolysis of biomass at
temperatures ranging from 300 to 1000°C in a low-oxygen environment, has recently
gained attention as a renewable energy source. Biochar can be produced from various
biomass wastes such as rice husk, animal manure, and waste wood, and its diverse properties
offer a wide range of potential applications. Primarily used as a soil amendment,
biochar improves soil moisture retention and promotes plant growth, making it highly
valued in the agricultural industry due to its low cost and simple production process
(Lehmann, 2007).
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers are widely used to enhance crack resistance and improve
the strength of concrete (Lee, 2010). These fibers form a network structure within the concrete matrix, improving mechanical
performance and increasing the durability of the concrete. When incorporated into
concrete, biochar and PVA fibers can interact with the cementitious matrix, increasing
the microstructural density of the concrete and enhancing its crack resistance.
Current research in the field of carbon reduction-related construction technologies
focuses on utilizing industrial waste as a replacement for cement or as aggregates.
However, these studies are limited in that they only achieve carbon reduction by reducing
the amount of cement used. While these technologies can reduce CO2 emissions by decreasing cement usage, they fall short in capturing and sequestering
CO2 from the air. To address these challenges, it is necessary to explore the use of
carbon capture materials such as biochar in construction applications. Biochar's carbon
structure varies depending on the pyrolysis temperature of the biomass and is significantly
influenced by the production temperature. At temperatures below 400°C, there is a
large increase in disordered inorganic carbon. As the temperature rises, the carbon
structure becomes more organized, with aromatic carbon layering occurring between
400 and 800°C, and graphite formation beginning above 1500°C. Unlike conventional
charcoal, which emits CO2 during pyrolysis at temperatures above 1000°C, biochar can significantly reduce CO2 emissions, highlighting its potential for carbon reduction. The pores and surface
of biochar change with the pyrolysis temperature, increasing in pore size and surface
area as the temperature rises. The quality of biochar is primarily determined by its
pore size, and higher pyrolysis temperatures result in larger and more refined pores,
leading to higher quality biochar (Ruziev, 2023).
This study evaluates the mechanical properties of High-Tension Performance Biochar
Concrete reinforced with PVA (polyvinyl alcohol) fibers by partially replacing cement
with biochar. Compressive strength, flexural strength, and tensile strength tests
were conducted to compare and analyze the effects of PVA fiber reinforcement and varying
biochar replacement ratios. Additionally, to assess the impact of incorporating PVA
fibers and biochar on the mechanical properties of the concrete, SEM (Scanning Electron
Microscopy) images were examined, and measurements of slump and air content were taken
(Ruziev, 2023).
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Material
For the preparation of test specimens, ordinary Portland cement (Type I) conforming
to KS L 5201(2021)(Portland cement) was used. The physical and chemical properties of the cement utilized
are summarized in Table 1. River sand with a fineness modulus of 2.45 was employed as the fine aggregate, while
coarse aggregate of sizes less than 20 mm was selected. To evaluate the particle size
distribution characteristics of both fine and coarse aggregates, sieve analysis was
conducted according to KS F 2502 (2019)(Standard test method for sieve analysis of aggregates). The particle size distribution
curves resulting from the sieve analysis are presented in Fig. 1. The uniformity coefficient and curvature coefficient for the coarse aggregate were
determined to be 1.81 and 1.05, respectively, while those for the fine aggregate were
3.70 and 1.25, respectively. The coarse aggregate was immersed in water for more than
12 hours and then used in a surface-saturated dry condition for the mix. The PVA mono-fiber
used as the reinforcing fiber had a length of 12 mm, and its physical properties provided
by the manufacturer are summarized in Table 2.
Fig. 1. Particle Size Distribution Curves of Aggregates
Table 1. Physical and Chemical Properties of Cement
Density
(g/cm3)
|
Blaine
(cm2/g)
|
Soundness
(%)
|
Chemical component (%)
|
CaO
|
SiO2
|
Fe2O3
|
SO3
|
Al2O3
|
3.15
|
3.390
|
0.05
|
63.4
|
22.0
|
3.44
|
1.96
|
5.27
|
Table 2. Physical Properties of PVA Fibers
Tensile strength
|
Elongation
|
Modulus of elasticity
|
Specific gravity
|
Melting point
|
Diameter
|
1376.5 MPa
|
5.5 %
|
30006.6 MPa
|
1.30
|
221℃
|
19.65 µm
|
Fig. 2. Equipment Used for Grinding and Drying, (a) Oven for Drying, (b) Vibration Mill for Grinding
Fig. 3. Image of Biochar in Different Forms, (a) Biochar, (b) Grinded Biochar
Fig. 4. SEM images of Biochar at ×5,000 and ×10,000 Magnifications, (a) SEM of Grinded Biochar (×5,000), (b) SEM of Grinded Biochar (×10,000)
The biochar used in this experiment was a product of Company S, produced from wood
pellets at high temperatures ranging from 650 to 800°C. To obtain a particle size
similar to that of cement, the biochar was dried in an oven at approximately 100°C
for over 24 hours, as illustrated in Fig. 2(a). It was then ground using a vibration mill, as depicted in Fig. 2(b). Fig. 3 shows the biochar before and after grinding. SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) images
of the biochar at magnifications of ×5,000 and ×10,000 revealed a porous structure,
as illustrated in Fig. 4. The elemental composition of the biochar, analyzed using SEM-EDS (Energy Dispersive
Spectroscopy), is summarized in Table 3 and illustrated in Fig. 4. According to Spokas (2010), an oxygen-to-carbon (O/C) ratio of less than 0.2 indicates long-term chemical stability.
The biochar used in this study had an average O/C ratio of 0.18, indicating it possesses
chemical stability.
The specific surface area, pore volume, and pore size of the ground biochar were measured
using BET (Brunauer- Emmett-Teller) analysis, with the results presented in Table 4. The particle size distribution of both the cement and the ground biochar was analyzed
using PSA (Particle Size Analysis), and the results are summarized in Table 5 and illustrated in Fig. 5. Emphasis was placed on achieving a particle size distribution for the ground biochar
that closely matched that of the cement. It was found that over 90 % of the ground
biochar had a particle size of 17.12 µm, which is less than 20 µm. Similarly, more
than 90 % of the cement particles had a size of 19.01 µm, also less than 20 µm.
Table 3. SEM_EDS Analysis Results of Biochar
Element
|
C
|
O
|
Na
|
Mg
|
Al
|
Si
|
Cl
|
K
|
Ca
|
Fe
|
Total
|
Wt%
|
83.48
|
13.82
|
0.41
|
0.35
|
0.10
|
0.38
|
0.35
|
0.30
|
0.73
|
0.07
|
100.00
|
Table 4. BET Test Results of Grinded Biochar
Material
|
Specific surface area (m2/g)
|
Pore volume (cm3/g)
|
Pore size (nm)
|
Grinded biochar
|
17.50
|
0.031
|
7.03
|
Table 5. Comparison of Particle Size Distribution of Cement and Grinded Biochar (Unit : µm)
Material
|
D10
|
D50
|
D90
|
Standard deviation
|
Average
|
Cement
|
6.41
|
11.92
|
19.01
|
4.92
|
12.38
|
grinded biochar
|
5.23
|
9.81
|
17.12
|
5.19
|
10.72
|
Fig. 5. Particle Size Distribution Curves of Cement and Grinded Biochar, (a) Grinded Biochar, (b) Cement
2.2 Experimental Variables and Mixture
BC is a concrete in which part of the cement is replaced with biochar at a specific
ratio, and PBC is BC reinforced by adding PVA fibers. For each type, the percentage
replacement of biochar varies from 1 % to 5 %. The concrete mix proportions are provided
in Table 6, with a water-to-binder (W/B) ratio of 50 % and a sand-to-aggregate (S/A) ratio of
45 %. The biochar replacement levels were set to increase incrementally from 0 % to
a maximum of 5 % by cement mass ratio (wt %). The inclusion rate of PVA fibers was
fixed at 0.07 % by volume (vol %) as recommended by the manufacturer.
Table 6. Mix Proportions of Concrete (Unit : kg/m3)
Specimen name
|
R
(%)
|
C
|
B
|
PVA fiber
(vol %)
|
W
|
FA
|
CA
|
SP
|
AE
|
B
C
|
BC0
|
0
|
370
|
-
|
-
|
185
|
728
|
889
|
0.56
|
0.0084
|
BC1
|
1
|
366.3
|
3.7
|
BC2
|
2
|
362.6
|
7.4
|
BC3
|
3
|
358.9
|
11.1
|
BC4
|
4
|
355.2
|
14.8
|
BC5
|
5
|
351.5
|
18.5
|
B
P
C
|
BPC0
|
0
|
370
|
-
|
0.07
|
BPC1
|
1
|
366.3
|
3.7
|
BPC2
|
2
|
362.6
|
7.4
|
BPC3
|
3
|
358.9
|
11.1
|
BPC4
|
4
|
355.2
|
14.8
|
BPC5
|
5
|
351.5
|
18.5
|
R: Biochar cement replacement ratio, C: Cement, B: Biochar, W: Water, FA: Fine aggregate,
CA: Coarse aggregate, SP: Super plasticizer, AE: Air entrainer
Fig. 6. Concrete Mixing Process, (a) Coarse Aggregate, (b) Fine Aggregate, (c) Cement, (d) Biochar, (e) Water + SP + AE, (f) PVA, (g) Curing in Air, (h) Curing in Water
To analyze the mechanical properties of the concrete, specimens were prepared in accordance
with KS F 2403(2019) (Standard test method for making concrete specimens). The prepared specimens underwent
24 hours of air curing, were demolded, and then subjected to 28 days of water curing
at a constant temperature of 20 ± 2°C, as illustrated in Fig. 6(h).
2.3 Test Method and Equipment
To measure the workability of the fresh concrete, the slump test was conducted in
accordance with KS F 2402(2022)(Test method for concrete slump). The air content of the fresh concrete was determined
using the pressure method as specified in KS F 2421(2016)(Standard test method for air content of fresh concrete by the pressure method (Air
receiver method)). To evaluate the mechanical properties of the concrete, tests were
performed following KS F 2405(2022)(Test method for compressive strength of concrete), KS F 2408(2016)(Standard test method for flexural strength of concrete), and KS F 2423(2021)(Standard test method for tensile splitting strength of concrete), as depicted in
Fig. 7. The compressive strength and tensile splitting strength were measured using cylindrical
specimens (Φ100 × 200 mm), as shown in Fig. 8(a). The flexural strength was measured using prismatic specimens (100 × 100 × 400 mm),
as depicted in Fig. 8(b). A universal testing machine (UTM) with a capacity of 200 tons was used for these
experiments.
Fig. 7. Test Setup, (a) Compressive Test, (b) Splitting Tensile Test, (c) Flexural Test
Fig. 8. Schematic of Test Specimens, (a) Cylinder (Φ100 × 200 mm), (b) Prism (100 × 100 × 400 mm)
3. Test Results and Discussions
To evaluate the impact of PVA fiber reinforcement on the mechanical properties of
biochar concrete, SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) imaging was conducted, and measurements
of slump and air content were taken. These methods provide detailed insights into
the interactions between biochar, PVA fibers, and the cementitious matrix. They also
reveal the respective effects on the workability, air entrainment, and structural
properties of the concrete.
3.1 Results of HS FE-SEM
Fig. 9(a) and (b) present the SEM images of BC (biochar added concrete) and BPC (PVA fiber
reinforced biochar concrete) taken at a magnification of ×10,000. The images reveal
the interaction between biochar, PVA fibers, and cement compounds. In both cases,
the SEM images show that the biochar and PVA fibers are integrated into the cement
matrix, indicating a cohesive bond with the cementitious materials.
Fig. 9. SEM Images of the Concrete with Biochar and PVA Fiber, (a) SEM Image of BC, (b) SEM Image of BPC
3.2 Results of Slump and Air Content Test
The results of the slump and air content tests for the fresh concrete are presented
in Table 7 and Fig. 10. The slump test results, which measure the workability of fresh concrete, indicated
that the slump value for the BC0 was 225 mm. It was observed that the incorporation
of biochar and PVA fibers into the concrete resulted in a reduction in slump. This
trend can be attributed to the bridging effect of PVA fibers, which prevents the concrete
from flowing easily (Lee, 2010). Additionally, as the replacement rate of biochar increased, the slump of the concrete
decreased, likely due to biochar's water retention capability (Lehmann, 2007).
Table 7. Summary of Concrete Slump and Air Content Test Results
Specimen name
|
Slump (mm)
|
Air content (%)
|
B
C
|
BC0
|
225
|
3.3
|
BC1
|
220
|
3.0
|
BC2
|
210
|
2.1
|
BC3
|
185
|
2.3
|
BC4
|
165
|
2.8
|
BC5
|
150
|
2.0
|
B
P
C
|
BPC0
|
205
|
3.4
|
BPC1
|
195
|
3.3
|
BPC2
|
175
|
3.6
|
BPC3
|
165
|
3.7
|
BPC4
|
80
|
2.7
|
BPC5
|
115
|
3.2
|
The generally low slump value for PBC 4 % in Fig. 10(b) reflects the overall decreasing trend in workability due to the combined effects
of biochar and PVA fibers. As the biochar replacement rate increases, the water retention
capacity of the biochar reduces the free water available in the mix, leading to a
lower slump. Additionally, PVA fibers create a bridging effect that further restricts
the flow of the concrete. These combined effects result in a significant reduction
in workability. Furthermore, the inconsistency in the internal structure of the concrete
and the non-uniform dispersion of PVA during specimen preparation also contribute
to the notably low slump value (Kim et al., 2023).
Fig. 10. Comparison of Slump and Air Content of Fresh Concrete, (a) BC, (b) PBC
The air content test results for the fresh concrete showed that the biochar and PVA
fiber-reinforced concrete (BPC) maintained an air content of approximately 3 % across
all specimens. This consistency is likely due to the presence of voids at the interface
between the PVA fibers and the concrete matrix, which are caused by the fiber inclusion
(Won et al., 2005). For the BC specimens as shown in Fig. 10(a), it was observed that as the replacement rate of biochar increased, the air content
tended to decrease. This reduction in air content is associated with the particle
size of the biochar. In this study, most of the biochar particles were ground to below
20 µm. The porous structure of the biochar particles allowed the cement matrix to
fill the voids more densely, thereby reducing the overall porosity (Alice et al., 2022; Han and Choi, 2023).
3.3 Experimental Results and Analysis of Mechanical Properties of Concrete
3.3.1 Results and Analysis of Compressive Strength Test
The compressive strength results for concrete specimens, both PVA-reinforced (BPC)
and non-reinforced (BC), with varying biochar replacement ratio (0 % to 5 %), are
summarized in Table 8. As shown in Fig. 11 the incorporation of biochar as a partial cement replacement generally leads to a
decrease in compressive strength for both non-reinforced and PVA-reinforced concrete.
This trend is more pronounced at lower biochar replacement levels (1 % to 3 %), where
the reduction in strength is significant. However, at higher levels of biochar (4
% and 5 %), the adverse effect on compressive strength appears to stabilize or slightly
improve, particularly in the PVA-reinforced specimens.
The presence of PVA fibers positively influences the compressive strength development,
especially over the longer term (28 days). The PVA-reinforced concrete specimens exhibit
higher 28-day compressive strengths compared to their non-reinforced counterparts.
This suggests that PVA fibers enhance matrix integrity. They also contribute to improved
load distribution and crack bridging. This effect can be attributed to the formation
of a fiber network within the concrete, which helps to arrest crack propagation and
distribute loads more evenly throughout the material (Xie et al., 2024). This network formation is critical for maintaining higher strengths despite the
addition of biochar.
Fig. 11. Results of Compressive Strength Test, (a) Day 7, (b) Day 28
Table 8. Summary of Compressive Strength Test (Unit : MPa)
Specimen
name
|
Compressive Strength
|
7 day
|
28 day
|
Average
|
Standard deviation
|
Average
|
Standard deviation
|
B
C
|
BC0
|
23.86
|
0.21
|
28.01
|
0.77
|
BC1
|
17.65
|
0.15
|
23.37
|
1.06
|
BC2
|
22.27
|
0.38
|
26.09
|
1.40
|
BC3
|
21.30
|
0.57
|
24.64
|
0.57
|
BC4
|
22.99
|
0.53
|
26.50
|
0.89
|
BC5
|
21.42
|
1.21
|
26.64
|
0.68
|
B
P
C
|
BPC0
|
23.59
|
0.05
|
31.66
|
0.22
|
BPC1
|
17.20
|
0.58
|
22.89
|
0.12
|
BPC2
|
21.32
|
0.21
|
25.65
|
0.51
|
BPC3
|
20.04
|
0.28
|
25.65
|
0.36
|
BPC4
|
23.64
|
0.47
|
30.81
|
0.09
|
BPC5
|
22.15
|
0.32
|
27.52
|
0.26
|
3.3.2 Results and Analysis of Tensile Splitting Strength Test
Table 9 presents the results of the tensile splitting strength tests for both non-reinforced
(BC) and PVA fiber-reinforced concrete (BPC) specimens with varying percentages of
biochar replacement from 0 % to 5 %. As shown in Fig. 12(a), both BC and BPC specimens exhibit a general trend of decreased tensile splitting
strength with increasing biochar replacement up to 3 %, after which there is some
recovery in strength for both series. The PVA-reinforced concrete generally shows
higher tensile splitting strength compared to non-reinforced concrete, indicating
the beneficial effect of PVA fibers. Fig. 12(b) shows a similar trend as the 7-day results, but with overall increased tensile splitting
strengths due to continued curing. The BC4 and BPC5 specimens demonstrate relatively
higher tensile splitting strengths, indicating optimal biochar replacement levels
for maintaining or enhancing tensile strength over time.
Fig. 12. Results of Tensile Splitting Strength Test, (a) Day 7, (b) Day 28
Table 9. Summary of Tensile Splitting Strength Test (Unit : MPa)
Specimen
name
|
Tensile splitting strength
|
7 day
|
28 day
|
Average
|
Standard deviation
|
Average
|
Standard deviation
|
B
C
|
BC0
|
2.33
|
0.08
|
2.85
|
0.31
|
BC1
|
2.26
|
0.16
|
2.60
|
0.04
|
BC2
|
2.45
|
0.08
|
2.92
|
0.06
|
BC3
|
2.25
|
0.14
|
2.53
|
0.22
|
BC4
|
2.58
|
0.20
|
2.72
|
0.12
|
BC5
|
2.45
|
0.02
|
2.87
|
0.03
|
B
P
C
|
BPC0
|
2.52
|
0.38
|
3.06
|
0.31
|
BPC1
|
2.10
|
0.14
|
2.54
|
0.09
|
BPC2
|
2.17
|
0.15
|
2.58
|
0.23
|
BPC3
|
2.11
|
0.06
|
2.17
|
0.21
|
BPC4
|
2.46
|
0.12
|
2.86
|
0.03
|
BPC5
|
2.10
|
0.04
|
2.98
|
0.26
|
3.3.3 Results and Analysis of Flexural Strength Test
Table 10 presents the results of flexural strength tests for both non-reinforced (BC) and
PVA fiber-reinforced concrete (BPC) specimens with varying biochar replacement levels
ranging from 0 % to 5 %. As shown in Fig. 13(a), general trend of decreased flexural strength with 1 % and 3 % biochar replacement
for both BC and BPC specimens, followed by a recovery or slight improvement at higher
replacement levels (4 % and 5 %). PVA-reinforced concrete generally shows higher or
comparable flexural strength to non-reinforced concrete. Fig. 13(b) shows that flexural strengths for both BC and BPC specimens improve over time. Higher
biochar replacement levels (4 % and 5 %) show significant strength recovery or improvement,
particularly for non-reinforced concrete. PVA-reinforced concrete shows slightly lower
values compared to non-reinforced concrete at 28 days, suggesting a complex interaction
between PVA fibers and biochar over time.
Fig. 13. Results of Flexural Strength Test, (a) Day 7, (b) Day 28
Table 10. Summary of Flexural Strength Test (Unit : MPa)
Specimen
name
|
Flexural Strength
|
7 day
|
28 day
|
Average
|
Standard deviation
|
Average
|
Standard deviation
|
B
C
|
BC0
|
5.50
|
0.07
|
5.87
|
0.05
|
BC1
|
4.73
|
0.15
|
5.59
|
0.09
|
BC2
|
5.47
|
0.45
|
6.11
|
0.40
|
BC3
|
5.17
|
0.12
|
5.90
|
0.07
|
BC4
|
5.64
|
0.09
|
6.05
|
0.22
|
BC5
|
5.44
|
0.17
|
6.61
|
0.11
|
B
P
C
|
BPC0
|
5.64
|
0.30
|
5.36
|
0.43
|
BPC1
|
4.63
|
0.35
|
5.75
|
0.35
|
BPC2
|
5.29
|
0.24
|
5.72
|
0.50
|
BPC3
|
5.19
|
0.02
|
6.16
|
0.05
|
BPC4
|
4.76
|
0.21
|
5.86
|
0.06
|
BPC5
|
5.22
|
0.12
|
5.82
|
0.39
|
The inclusion of biochar initially reduces flexural strength, especially at lower
replacement levels. However, higher replacement levels (4 % and 5 %) show significant
recovery or improvement in strength, particularly for non-reinforced concrete. PVA
fiber reinforcement generally helps maintain or slightly improve flexural strength
at higher biochar replacement levels. The increased flexural strength observed at
higher biochar replacement levels can be attributed to the complexity of crack paths
within the concrete matrix due to biochar and PVA fiber addition. This complexity
likely increases the fracture energy required for crack propagation, leading to improved
flexural performance (Sachini et al., 2023; Ahmad et al., 2014).
4. Conclusion
This study evaluated the mechanical properties of High-Tension Performance Biochar
Concrete reinforced with PVA fibers, focusing on varying cement replacement ratios
of biochar. Based on the experimental results, the following conclusions were drawn:
(1) SEM imaging confirmed that biochar and PVA fibers are well integrated into the
cement matrix, which enhances the microstructural density. This integration improves
crack resistance and overall structural integrity.
(2) The addition of biochar and PVA fibers reduces the workability and air content
of the concrete. This reduction is due to the bridging effect of PVA fibers and the
water retention capacity of biochar, which affects the slump and air content.
(3) Increasing biochar content generally decreases compressive strength, particularly
at lower replacement levels. However, PVA fibers help improve long-term compressive
strength and stability at higher biochar replacement levels.
(4) Tensile strength initially decreases with biochar replacement up to 3 %, but recovers
at higher levels. PVA fibers significantly enhance tensile strength by improving crack
bridging and stress distribution.
(5) Flexural strength decreases at 1 % to 3 % biochar replacement levels but improves
at 4 % and 5 % levels. PVA fibers help maintain or slightly enhance flexural strength,
contributing to the complexity of crack paths and increasing fracture energy.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea
and the National Research Foundation of Korea (RS-2023-00248882).
References
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