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  1. (School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Korea.)



SiC-MOSFET, Bidirectional DC-DC converter, High electric field, Aging

1. ์„œ ๋ก 

์ „๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ๋™๋ ฅ์œผ๋กœ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜๋Š” ์นœํ™˜๊ฒฝ ๊ธฐ์ˆ ๋“ค์˜ ๋ฐœ์ „์œผ๋กœ ์ธํ•ด ์ „๋ ฅ ๋ฐ˜๋„์ฒด ์ˆ˜์š”๊ฐ€ ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์ „๊ธฐ ์ž๋™์ฐจ, ํƒœ์–‘๊ด‘ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์€ ์นœํ™˜๊ฒฝ ๊ธฐ์ˆ ๋“ค์€ ๊ณ ์žฅ ์‹œ ์ธ๋ช…ํ”ผํ•ด ๋ฐ ์žฌ์‚ฐ ํ”ผํ•ด๋ฅผ ์œ ๋ฐœํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์œผ๋ฏ€๋กœ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ ์•ˆ์ •์„ฑ ๋ฐ ์ „๋ ฅ ๋ฐ˜๋„์ฒด ์‹ ๋ขฐ์„ฑ์„ ๋†’์ด๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด ์ค‘์š”ํ•˜๋‹ค. ์ „๋ ฅ ๋ฐ˜๋„์ฒด๋Š” ์ „๋ ฅ ๋ณ€ํ™˜ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ์— ํ•„์ˆ˜์ ์ธ ์š”์†Œ๋กœ ์ œ์–ด ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•์ด๋‚˜ ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ ์ž‘๋™ ์กฐ๊ฑด์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฐ›๊ฒŒ ๋œ๋‹ค. ๋ฐ˜๋„์ฒด ์†Œ์ž๋Š” ๋น„์˜๊ตฌ์ ์ธ ์žฅ์น˜๋กœ ๋…ธํ™”๋ ์ˆ˜๋ก ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ์˜ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ ์ €ํ•˜๋ฅผ ์œ ๋ฐœํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์ „๋ ฅ ๋ฐ˜๋„์ฒด ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ๋ณ€์ˆ˜ ๋ฐ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ๋งŽ์€ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋“ค์ด ์ง„ํ–‰๋˜์–ด ์™”๋‹ค. ์ตœ๊ทผ์—๋Š” ์ „๋ ฅ ๋ฐ˜๋„์ฒด์ธ ๊ณ ์ฃผํŒŒ ๋ฐ ์ €์†์‹ค ํŠน์„ฑ์„ ๊ฐ€์ง€๋Š” Silicon-carbide Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (SiC-MOSFET)์˜ ์‚ฌ์šฉ์ด ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค (1)-(2). SiC-MOSFET์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ๋™์ž‘ ์‹œ ์บ๋ฆฌ์–ด์˜ ๋†’์€ ์šด๋™์—๋„ˆ์ง€ ๋ฐ ์†Œ์ž ์—ดํ™” ํ˜„์ƒ ๋ฐœ์ƒ์œผ๋กœ ์ธํ•ด ๊ฒŒ์ดํŠธ ์‚ฐํ™”์ธต ๋ฐ ์†Œ์ž ํŒจํ‚ค์ง€์— ๋…ธํ™” ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๊ณ  ์ด๋Š” ์†Œ์ž ์Šค์œ„์น˜ ํŠน์„ฑ์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์ค€๋‹ค (3)-(5). ์ง€์†์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ŠคํŠธ๋ ˆ์Šค๊ฐ€ ์Œ“์ผ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ๊ฒŒ์ดํŠธ ์‚ฐํ™”์ธต ์ ˆ์—ฐ ํŒŒ๊ดด ํ˜น์€ ํŒจํ‚ค์ง€ ์†์ƒ์œผ๋กœ ์ธํ•ด ๊ฒŒ์ดํŠธ ๋“œ๋ ˆ์ธ ๋‹จ๋ฝ ๊ณ ์žฅ ํ˜น์€ ๊ฒŒ์ดํŠธ ์†Œ์Šค ๋‹จ๋ฝ ๊ณ ์žฅ ๋“ฑ์ด ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜์—ฌ ์ „์ฒด์ ์ธ ์ „๋ ฅ๋ณ€ํ™˜ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์ค„ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ๋…ผ๋ฌธ์—์„œ๋Š” SiC-MOSFET ๋…ธํ™” ํŠน์„ฑ์„ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ๊ฐ€์† ์‹คํ—˜, ๋”๋ธ” ํŽ„์Šค ํ…Œ์ŠคํŠธ ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ์‹œ๋ฎฌ๋ ˆ์ด์…˜์„ ํ†ตํ•œ ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ ํšจ์œจ ๋ฐ ์†์‹ค ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ผ๋ฐ˜์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ „๋ ฅ ๋ฐ˜๋„์ฒด์˜ ๋…ธํ™”๋ฅผ ํ™•์ธํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด์„œ๋Š” ๋งŽ์€ ์‹œ๊ฐ„์ด ์†Œ์š”๋˜๋ฏ€๋กœ ์ „๋ ฅ ๋ฐ˜๋„์ฒด ๋…ธํ™” ๊ฐ€์† ์‹คํ—˜์ด ๋งŽ์ด ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋œ๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ๋…ผ๋ฌธ์—์„œ๋Š” ๋…ธํ™” ๊ฐ€์†์„ ์œ„ํ•ด ์ „๋ ฅ ๋ฐ˜๋„์ฒด ์†Œ์ž ๊ฒŒ์ดํŠธ์— ๊ณ ์ „์••์„ ์ธ๊ฐ€ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ๊ฐ€์† ์‹คํ—˜์„ ์ง„ํ–‰ํ•˜์—ฌ ์Šค์œ„์นญ ์†Œ์ž์˜ ๋…ธํ™”๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์†ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค (6)-(9). ์ดํ›„ ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ์Šค์œ„์นญ ์†Œ์ž ํŠน์„ฑ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋…ธํ™”์— ์˜ํ•ด ๋ฌธํ„ฑ์ „์•• ํ˜น์€ ์˜จ ์ €ํ•ญ๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์€ ์Šค์œ„์นญ ํŠน์„ฑ์ด ๋ฐ”๋€” ๊ฒฝ์šฐ, ์†Œ์ž ์Šค์œ„์น˜ ์ฒœ์ด ์‹œ๊ฐ„์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์ฃผ์–ด ๋ฐ๋“œ ํƒ€์ž„์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์ค„ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Š”, ์Š›-์Šค๋ฃจ ํ˜„์ƒ ๋ฐ ์†์‹ค ์ฆ๊ฐ€๋ฅผ ์ผ์œผํ‚ฌ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์–ด ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ ํšจ์œจ ์ €ํ•˜๋ฅผ ์œ ๋ฐœํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค (8). ์Šค์œ„์นญ ์†Œ์ž ๋…ธํ™”๊ฐ€ ์ „๋ ฅ ๋ณ€ํ™˜ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ์— ๋ผ์น˜๋Š” ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์•Œ์•„๋ณด๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด, ์†Œ์ž ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ์˜ ์†์‹ค ๋ฐ ํšจ์œจ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์†์‹ค ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ๋”๋ธ” ํŽ„์Šค ํ…Œ์ŠคํŠธ๋ฅผ ์ง„ํ–‰ํ•˜์˜€๊ณ  ์†Œ์ž ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ํ„ด ์˜จ ์†์‹ค, ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์†์‹ค, ์—ญ ํšŒ๋ณต ์†์‹ค, ํŠธ๋žœ์ง€์Šคํ„ฐ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ๋‹ค์ด์˜ค๋“œ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค์„ ์ธก์ •ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค (10)-(11). ์ถ”๊ฐ€๋กœ ์†์‹ค๋ฟ๋งŒ ์•„๋‹ˆ๋ผ ํ„ด ์˜จ ๋ฐ ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์‹œ ์Šค์œ„์น˜ ์ฒœ์ด ์‹œ๊ฐ„ ๋ณ€ํ™”, ๊ธฐ์ƒ ์˜ค์‹ค๋ ˆ์ด์…˜๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์€ ์Šค์œ„์นญ ํŠน์„ฑ์˜ ๋ณ€ํ™” ๋˜ํ•œ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๊ธฐ์ƒ ์˜ค์‹ค๋ ˆ์ด์…˜์€ ๋น ๋ฅธ ์†๋„๋กœ ์Šค์œ„์นญ ํ•˜๋Š” Wide-Band Gap(WBG) ์†Œ์ž์—์„œ ์ฃผ๋กœ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜๋Š” ํ˜„์ƒ์ด๋‹ค (12)-(14). ๋”๋ธ” ํŽ„์Šค ํ…Œ์ŠคํŠธ๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ์ธก์ •ํ•œ ์†์‹ค ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ๋ฅผ ์†Œํ”„ํŠธ์›จ์–ด ํ”„๋กœ๊ทธ๋žจ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ๋ชจ๋ธ๋งํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ดํ›„, ํ•ด๋‹น ์†์‹ค ๋ชจ๋ธ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ์ „๋ ฅ ๋ณ€ํ™˜ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ์— ์ ์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ SiC-MOSFET์ด ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋œ ์–‘๋ฐฉํ–ฅ DC-DC ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ์—์„œ ์†Œ์ž ๋…ธํ™” ์ •๋„์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ์ด ์†์‹ค ๋ณ€ํ™” ๋ฐ ํšจ์œจ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ์‹œ๋ฎฌ๋ ˆ์ด์…˜์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค.

2. SiC-MOSFET ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ๊ฐ€์† ์‹คํ—˜

SiC-MOSFET ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ ์†์‹ค ๋ฐ ํšจ์œจ ๋ณ€ํ™”์„ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ๊ฐ€์† ์‹คํ—˜์„ ์ง„ํ–‰ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ๊ฐ€์† ์‹คํ—˜์€ ์†Œ์ž์˜ ๊ฒŒ์ดํŠธ-์†Œ์Šค ๋‹จ์— ์ •๊ฒฉ ์ด์ƒ์˜ ๊ณ ์ „์••์„ ์ธ๊ฐ€ํ•˜์—ฌ ์†Œ์ž ๊ฒŒ์ดํŠธ ์‚ฐํ™”์ธต์— ๋…ธํ™”๋ฅผ ๋ฐœ์ƒ์‹œํ‚ค๋Š” ์‹คํ—˜์ด๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ๋…ผ๋ฌธ์—์„œ๋Š” 50V์˜ ์ „์••์„ ๊ฒŒ์ดํŠธ-์†Œ์Šค ๋‹จ์— ์ธ๊ฐ€ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ๋ฃŒ๋Š” ๋…ธํ™”๋œ ์†Œ์ž๋ฅผ ๋งํ•œ๋‹ค. ์‹คํ—˜์€ ์ƒ์˜จ(25หšC)์—์„œ ์ง„ํ–‰ํ•˜์˜€๊ณ  ๋…ธํ™”๋Š” 3600์ดˆ ๋™์•ˆ ์ง„ํ–‰ํ•˜์—ฌ ๋™์ผ ์‹œ๊ฐ„ ๋™์•ˆ ๋…ธํ™” ์ •๋„๋ฅผ ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์‹คํ—˜์— ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋œ SiC-MOSFET์˜ ๋…ธํ™” ์ „ ํŠน์„ฑ ๋ณ€์ˆ˜๋Š” ํ‘œ 1๊ณผ ๊ฐ™๊ณ  ๋…ธํ™” ์ดํ›„ ์˜จ ์ €ํ•ญ ๋ฐ ๋ฌธํ„ฑ ์ „์•• ๋ณ€ํ™”๋Ÿ‰์€ ํ‘œ 2์™€ ๊ฐ™๋‹ค. ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ์ดํ›„ ์˜จ ์ €ํ•ญ์€ ๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ๋ฃŒ(A)๋Š” 77mฮฉ, ๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ๋ฃŒ(B)๋Š” 83mฮฉ ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋ฌธํ„ฑ ์ „์••์€ ๋…ธํ™”์‹œ๋ฃŒ(A)๋Š” 5.33V, ๋…ธํ™”์‹œ๋ฃŒ(B)๋Š” 5.31V ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค.

ํ‘œ 1. SiC-MOSFET ํšŒ๋กœ ๋ณ€์ˆ˜

Table 1. SiC-MOSFET datasheet parameters

์†Œ์ž๋ช… : SCT3080AL

ํšŒ๋กœ ๋ณ€์ˆ˜

๋ณ€์ˆ˜ ๊ฐ’

$V_{D S}$

650 V

$R_{D S}$ (์˜จ ์ €ํ•ญ)

80 ~ 104 mฮฉ

$I_{D S}$

30 A

$V_{t h}$ (๋ฌธํ„ฑ ์ „์••)

2.7 ~ 5.6 V

ํ‘œ 2. ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ์ดํ›„ ์˜จ ์ €ํ•ญ ๋ฐ ๋ฌธํ„ฑ ์ „์•• ๋ณ€ํ™”

Table 2. On-resistance and Threshold-voltage change after high-electric field aging

๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ์ดํ›„ ๋ณ€์ˆ˜ ๋ณ€ํ™”

์˜จ ์ €ํ•ญ

๋ณ€ํ™”๋Ÿ‰

๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ๋ฃŒ (A)

+ 77 mฮฉ

๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ๋ฃŒ (B)

+ 83 mฮฉ

๋ฌธํ„ฑ ์ „์•• ๋ณ€ํ™”๋Ÿ‰

๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ๋ฃŒ (A)

+ 5.33 V

๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ๋ฃŒ (B)

+ 5.31 V

๊ทธ๋ฆผ. 1. ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ๊ฐ€์† ์‹คํ—˜์„ ์œ„ํ•œ ํšŒ๋กœ๋„

Fig. 1. Schematic for high-electric field aging acceleration experiments

../../Resources/kiee/KIEE.2022.71.9.1243/fig1.png

3. ๋”๋ธ” ํŽ„์Šค ํ…Œ์ŠคํŠธ

์†Œ์ž ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ์†์‹ค ์Šค์œ„์นญ ํŠน์„ฑ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ๋”๋ธ” ํŽ„์Šค ํ…Œ์ŠคํŠธ๋ฅผ ์ง„ํ–‰ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋”๋ธ” ํŽ„์Šค ํ…Œ์ŠคํŠธ ํšŒ๋กœ ๋ฐ ์‹ค์ œ ์‹คํ—˜ ์…‹์—…๋Š” ์•„๋ž˜ ๊ทธ๋ฆผ 2๊ณผ ๊ฐ™๋‹ค. ๋”๋ธ” ํŽ„์Šค ํ…Œ์ŠคํŠธ๋Š” ์†Œ์ž ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์„ ํŒŒ์•…ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ์ž์ฃผ ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋˜๋Š” ํ…Œ์ŠคํŠธ๋กœ ์ธ๋•ํ„ฐ ์„ฑ๋ถ„๊ณผ ์ „๋ฅ˜ ํŽ„์Šค์˜ ๊ธธ์ด๋ฅผ ์กฐ์ ˆํ•˜์—ฌ ์›ํ•˜๋Š” ์ „๋ฅ˜ ๊ฐ’์„ ์ธ๊ฐ€ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ํ•ด๋‹น ๋”๋ธ” ํŽ„์Šค ํ…Œ์ŠคํŠธ ํšŒ๋กœ์—์„œ ํŽ„์Šค ์‹ ํ˜ธ๋ฅผ ์ธ๊ฐ€ํ•˜์—ฌ ์Šค์œ„์น˜ ์ฒœ์ด ์‹œ๊ฐ„์—์„œ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜๋Š” ์†์‹ค์ธ ํ„ด ์˜จ ์†์‹ค(Eon), ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์†์‹ค(Eoff) ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ์—ญํšŒ๋ณต ์†์‹ค(Err)์„ ์ธก์ •ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ, ์ „๋ฅ˜๊ฐ€ ํ๋ฅผ ๋•Œ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜๋Š” ํŠธ๋žœ์ง€์Šคํ„ฐ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค๊ณผ ๋‹ค์ด์˜ค๋“œ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค์„ ์ธก์ •ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค (10). ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์†์‹ค์€ ๊ทธ๋ฆผ 2(a) M1์˜ ์ฒซ ๋ฒˆ์งธ ํŽ„์Šค ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์Šค์œ„์น˜ ์ฒœ์ด ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„์—์„œ ์ „์•• ์ƒ์Šน ๋ฐ ์ „๋ฅ˜ ํ•˜๊ฐ•ํ•  ๋•Œ๋ฅผ ์ธก์ •ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ฒซ๋ฒˆ์งธ ํŽ„์Šค๊ฐ€ ์˜คํ”„๋œ ์ดํ›„ ์ธ๋•ํ„ฐ์— ์˜ํ•ด M2์˜ ๋‹ค์ด์˜ค๋“œ๋กœ ์ „๋ฅ˜ $i_{F}$๊ฐ€ ํ๋ฅด๊ฒŒ ๋œ๋‹ค. ์ดํ›„ ๋‘๋ฒˆ์งธ ํŽ„์Šค๊ฐ€ M1์— ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•  ๋•Œ ํ„ด ์˜จ ์Šค์œ„์นญ ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„์—์„œ ํ„ด ์˜จ ์†์‹ค๊ณผ ์—ญํšŒ๋ณต ์†์‹ค์„ ์ธก์ •ํ•œ๋‹ค.

๊ทธ๋ฆผ. 2. (a) ๋”๋ธ” ํŽ„์Šค ํ…Œ์ŠคํŠธ ํšŒ๋กœ๋„ (b) ์‹ค์ œ ์‹คํ—˜ ์…‹์—…

Fig. 2. (a) Double pulse test schematic (b) Actual experimental setup

../../Resources/kiee/KIEE.2022.71.9.1243/fig2.png

๊ทธ๋ฆผ 3๋Š” ํ„ด ์˜จ, ์˜คํ”„ ์‹œ ์ „ํ˜•์ ์ธ ์Šค์œ„์น˜ ์ฒœ์ด ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„์—์„œ์˜ ๋“œ๋ ˆ์ธ-์†Œ์Šค ์ „์•• ์ „๋ฅ˜ ํŒŒํ˜•($V_{DS}$, $i_{DS}$)์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ธ๋‹ค. ์Šค์œ„์น˜ ์ฒœ์ด ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„์—์„œ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜๋Š” ์†์‹ค์€ ์˜ค์‹ค๋กœ์Šค์ฝ”ํ”„ ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„ ์†์‹ค ์ธก์ • ๊ธฐ๋Šฅ์„ ์ด์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ์ธก์ •ํ•˜์˜€๊ณ  ์ด๋Š” ์‹(1), (2), (3)๊ณผ ๊ฐ™๋‹ค. ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์†์‹ค์€ ์ „๋ฅ˜ ํ•˜๊ฐ• ๋ฐ ์ „์•• ์ƒ์Šน ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„(T1 to T4)์„ ๋‹จ์œ„์‹œ๊ฐ„์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ์ ๋ถ„ํ•˜์—ฌ ์ธก์ •ํ•˜์˜€๊ณ , ํ„ด ์˜จ ์†์‹ค์€ ์ „๋ฅ˜ ์ƒ์Šน ๋ฐ ์ „์•• ํ•˜๊ฐ• ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„(T5 to T8)์„ ๋‹จ์œ„ ์‹œ๊ฐ„์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ์ ๋ถ„ํ•˜์—ฌ ์ธก์ •ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์—ญํšŒ๋ณต ์†์‹ค์€ ์ „๋ฅ˜์˜ ์ œ๋กœ-ํฌ๋กœ์‹ฑ ํฌ์ธํŠธ์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ์ ๋ถ„ํ•˜์—ฌ ์ธก์ •ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค.

(1)
\begin{align*} E_{off}=\int_{T1}^{T4}P_{off}dt =\int_{T1}^{T4}V_{DS}\times i_{DS}dt\\ \end{align*}

(2)
$E_{on}=\int_{T5}^{T8}P_{on}dt =\int_{T5}^{T8}V_{DS}\times i_{DS}dt$

(3)
$E_{rr}=\int_{T9}^{T10}P_{rr}dt =\int_{T9}^{T10}V_{DS}\times i_{DS}dt$

์ดํ›„ ํ„ด ์˜จ ํ˜น์€ ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์‹œ ์†Œ์ž ๋“œ๋ ˆ์ธ ์ธก์˜ ์ „์•• ์ƒ์Šน ํ˜น์€ ํ•˜๊ฐ• ์‹œ๊ฐ„์„ ์ธก์ •ํ•˜์˜€๋Š”๋ฐ, ์ „์•• ์ƒ์Šน ์‹œ๊ฐ„์€ $V_{DS}$๊ฐ€ 10 %์ผ ๋•Œ๋ถ€ํ„ฐ 90%์— ๋„๋‹ฌํ•  ๋•Œ๊นŒ์ง€์˜ ์‹œ๊ฐ„์„ ์ธก์ •ํ•˜์˜€๊ณ  ์ „์•• ํ•˜๊ฐ• ์‹œ๊ฐ„์€ $V_{DS}$๊ฐ€ 90%์—์„œ 10%์— ๋„๋‹ฌํ•  ๋•Œ๊นŒ์ง€์˜ ์‹œ๊ฐ„์„ ์ธก์ •ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์Šค์œ„์นญ ์†Œ์ž์˜ ๋น ๋ฅธ ์Šค์œ„์นญ ์†๋„๋กœ ์ธํ•ด ์Šค์œ„์นญ ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„์—์„œ ๊ธฐ์ƒ ์˜ค์‹ค๋ ˆ์ด์…˜์ด ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜๋Š”๋ฐ, ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ๊ธฐ์ƒ ์˜ค์‹ค๋ ˆ์ด์…˜ ๋ณ€ํ™” ์ถ”์ด ๋˜ํ•œ ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค

๊ทธ๋ฆผ 4 (a), (b)๋Š” ๊ฐ๊ฐ ๋…ธํ™” ์ „ํ›„ ๋”๋ธ” ํŽ„์Šค ํ…Œ์ŠคํŠธ๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ์ธก์ •ํ•œ ํŠธ๋žœ์ง€์Šคํ„ฐ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค ์ธก์ • ๊ฐ’์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ธ๋‹ค. ๊ฒ€์€ ์ ์„ ์€ Fresh ์†Œ์ž์— 4.8A๊ฐ€ ๋„ํ†ต ๋  ๋•Œ ์†์‹ค ๊ฐ’์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ธ๋‹ค. ํ•ด๋‹น ๊ฒ€์€ ์ ์„ ์„ ๊ธฐ์ค€์œผ๋กœ ๋…ธํ™”๋œ ์†Œ์ž์— 4.8A๊ฐ€ ํ๋ฅผ ๋•Œ๋ฅผ ์‚ดํŽด๋ณด๋ฉด, ์†์‹ค ๊ฐ’์ด ๊ทธ ๋ณด๋‹ค ์ƒ์Šนํ•œ ๊ฒƒ์„ ์•Œ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋ฆผ 5(a), (b)๋Š” ๊ฐ๊ฐ ๋…ธํ™” ์ „ํ›„ ๋”๋ธ” ํŽ„์Šค ํ…Œ์ŠคํŠธ๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ์ธก์ •ํ•œ ๋‹ค์ด์˜ค๋“œ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค ์ธก์ • ๊ฐ’์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ธ๋‹ค. ๊ฒ€์€ ์ ์„ ์€ Fresh ์†Œ์ž์— 2.8 A๊ฐ€ ๋„ํ†ต ๋  ๋•Œ ์†์‹ค ๊ฐ’์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ธ๋‹ค. ํ•ด๋‹น ๊ฒ€์€ ์ ์„ ์„ ๊ธฐ์ค€์œผ๋กœ ๋…ธํ™”๋œ ์†Œ์ž์— 2.8A๊ฐ€ ํ๋ฅผ ๋•Œ๋ฅผ ์‚ดํŽด๋ณด๋ฉด, ์†์‹ค ๊ฐ’์ด ๊ทธ ๋ณด๋‹ค ์ƒ์Šนํ•œ ๊ฒƒ์„ ์•Œ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋ฆผ 6๋Š” ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ์‹คํ—˜์„ ์ง„ํ–‰ํ•˜์˜€์„ ๋•Œ ๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ๋ฃŒ์˜ ํ„ด ์˜จ ์Šค์œ„์นญ ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„ ํŒŒํ˜•์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ธ๋‹ค. ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ์‹คํ—˜์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ๋ฃŒ์—๋Š” ํŒŒํ˜•์ด ๋‹ค์†Œ ์ง€์—ฐ๋œ ๋ชจ์Šต์„ ๋ณด์ธ๋‹ค. ๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ๋ฃŒ์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ํ‘œ 1์˜ ํŠน์„ฑ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ๋ฌธํ„ฑ ์ „์••์ด ์ƒ์Šนํ•œ ๊ฒƒ์„ ์•Œ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š”๋ฐ ์ด๋กœ ์ธํ•ด ์†Œ์ž์˜ ํ„ด ์˜จ ์ƒ์Šน ์‹œ๊ฐ„์ด ์ง€์—ฐ๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ์ „์•• ํ•˜๊ฐ• ์‹œ๊ฐ„์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ๋„ ์ƒ๋‹นํžˆ ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•œ ๊ฒƒ์œผ๋กœ ๋ณผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š”๋ฐ, 155 [ns]์—์„œ 200 [ns]๋กœ 45 [ns]๋งŒํผ ์ƒ์Šนํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ „์•• ํ•˜๊ฐ• ์‹œ๊ฐ„์˜ ์ฆ๊ฐ€๋Š” ํ•ด๋‹น ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„์—์„œ์˜ ํ„ด ์˜จ ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„์˜ ์†์‹ค ์ฆ๊ฐ€๋กœ ์ด์–ด์ ธ ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ์˜ ํšจ์œจ์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์ค„ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ, ์ „์•• ํ•˜๊ฐ• ์‹œ๊ฐ„์˜ ์ฆ๊ฐ€๋กœ ์ธํ•ด ์ „์•• ์ƒ์Šน ๋ณ€ํ™”์œจ dv/dt๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ์†Œํ•˜์—ฌ ํ„ด ์˜จ ์‹œ๊ฐ„์ด ๊ฐ์†Œํ•˜๋ฏ€๋กœ ๊ธฐ์ƒ ์˜ค์‹ค๋ ˆ์ด์…˜ ์„ฑ๋ถ„์ด ๊ฐ์†Œํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒฝํ–ฅ์„ ๋ณด์ธ๋‹ค. ๋”๋ถˆ์–ด, ์ „๋ฅ˜ ์˜ค์‹ค๋ ˆ์ด์…˜์˜ ์ตœ๋Œ€๊ฐ’๋„ 11 A์—์„œ 9.9 A๋กœ ๊ฐ์†Œํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค.

๊ทธ๋ฆผ. 3. ์Šค์œ„์นญ ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„์—์„œ์˜ ์ „ํ˜•์ ์ธ ํŒŒํ˜• ๊ทธ๋ž˜ํ”„ (a) ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ํŒŒํ˜• (b) ํ„ด ์˜จ ํŒŒํ˜• (c) ์—ญํšŒ๋ณต ํŒŒํ˜•

Fig. 3. Typical waveform graph in the switching section (a) Turn-off waveform (b) Turn-on waveform (c) Reverse recovery waveform

../../Resources/kiee/KIEE.2022.71.9.1243/fig3.png

๊ทธ๋ฆผ. 4. ํŠธ๋žœ์ง€์Šคํ„ฐ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค ์ธก์ • ํŒŒํ˜• (a) ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ์ „ (b) ๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ๋ฃŒ

Fig. 4. Transistor conduction loss measurement waveform (a) Before high-electric field aging (b) Aging sample

../../Resources/kiee/KIEE.2022.71.9.1243/fig4.png

๊ทธ๋ฆผ. 5. ๋‹ค์ด์˜ค๋“œ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค ์ธก์ • ํŒŒํ˜• (a) ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ์ „ (b) ๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ๋ฃŒ

Fig. 5.Diode conduction loss measurement waveform (a) Before high-electric field aging (b) Aging sample

../../Resources/kiee/KIEE.2022.71.9.1243/fig5.png

๊ทธ๋ฆผ. 6. ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ์ „ ํ›„ ํ„ด ์˜จ ํŒŒํ˜•

Fig. 6. Turn-on waveforms before and after high-electric field aging

../../Resources/kiee/KIEE.2022.71.9.1243/fig6.png

๊ทธ๋ฆผ 7๋Š” ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ๊ฐ€์† ์‹คํ—˜๋ฅผ ์ง„ํ–‰ํ•˜์˜€์„ ๋•Œ ๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ๋ฃŒ์˜ ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์Šค์œ„์นญ ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„ ํŒŒํ˜•์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ธ๋‹ค. ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„๊ฐ€ ๋นจ๋ผ์ง€๋Š” ๋ชจ์Šต์„ ๋ณด์ด๋Š”๋ฐ, ๋†’์•„์ง„ ๋ฌธํ„ฑ์ „์••์œผ๋กœ ์ธํ•ด ์ „์••์ด ์ƒ์Šนํ•˜๋Š” ์‹œ์ ์ด ์•ž๋‹น๊ฒจ์กŒ๊ณ  ์ „์•• ํ•˜๊ฐ• ์‹œ๊ฐ„ ๋˜ํ•œ ๊ฐ์†Œํ•˜๋Š” ๋ชจ์Šต์„ ๋ณด์ธ๋‹ค. ์ „์•• ํ•˜๊ฐ• ์‹œ๊ฐ„์€ 56 [ns]์—์„œ 38 [ns]๋กœ 18 [ns] ๊ฐ์†Œํ•˜์˜€๊ณ  ํ•ด๋‹น ์ „์•• ํ•˜๊ฐ• ์‹œ๊ฐ„์˜ ๊ฐ์†Œ๋Š” ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์‹œ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜๋Š” ์—๋„ˆ์ง€ ์†์‹ค์˜ ๊ฐ์†Œ๋กœ ์ด์–ด์ง„๋‹ค. ๋…ธํ™” ์ „ ์†Œ์ž์™€ ๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ๋ฃŒ์˜ ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์†์‹ค์„ ๋น„๊ตํ•˜์˜€์„ ๋•Œ 36 [mJ]์—์„œ 22 [mJ]๋กœ 14 [mJ] ๊ฐ์†Œํ•˜๋Š” ๋ชจ์Šต์„ ๋ณด์˜€๋‹ค. ์ „์•• ์ƒ์Šน ์‹œ๊ฐ„์˜ ๊ฐ์†Œ๋Š” ์ „์•• ์ƒ์Šน ๋ณ€ํ™”์œจ dv/dt์˜ ์ฆ๊ฐ€๋กœ ์ด์–ด์ง„๋‹ค. dv/dt์ด ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•  ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ์†Œ์ž์˜ ๊ธฐ์ƒ ์˜ค์‹ค๋ ˆ์ด์…˜์ด ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋œ๋‹ค. ๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ๋ฃŒ์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ํ•ด๋‹น ์˜ค์‹ค๋ ˆ์ด์…˜์ด ์ƒ๋‹นํžˆ ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•œ ๊ฒƒ์„ ๋ณผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๊ณ  ์ „์•• ์˜ค์‹ค๋ ˆ์ด์…˜์˜ ์ตœ๋Œ€๊ฐ’๋„ 148V์—์„œ 168V๋กœ ์ƒ์Šนํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ํ•ด๋‹น ์ „์•• ์˜ค๋ฒ„ ์ŠˆํŠธ๋Š” ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์†Œ์ž ๋ฐ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์ค„ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๊ณ  ๊ณ ์ „์••์œผ๋กœ ์ธํ•ด ์†Œ์ž์˜ ๋…ธํ™”๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ€์†๋  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋”๋ถˆ์–ด, ์ „๋ฅ˜ ํ•˜๊ฐ• ์ดํ›„ 1A์˜ ์ถ”๊ฐ€์ ์ธ ์˜ค์‹ค๋ ˆ์ด์…˜ ์ „๋ฅ˜ ์„ฑ๋ถ„๋„ ๋ณผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Š” ์ถ”๊ฐ€์ ์ธ ์†์‹ค์„ ์œ ๋ฐœํ•˜๊ณ  ๋ฐ๋“œ ํƒ€์ž„์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์ค„ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ณผ๋„ํ•œ ์ „๋ฅ˜์— ์˜ํ•œ ์Š›-์Šค๋ฃจ ํ˜„์ƒ์„ ๋ฐœ์ƒ์‹œํ‚ฌ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ ์ „๋ ฅ๋ณ€ํ™˜์‹œ์Šคํ…œ์— ์‹ฌ๊ฐํ•œ ์†Œ์†์„ ์œ ๋ฐœํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค.

๊ทธ๋ฆผ. 7. ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ์ „ ํ›„ ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ํŒŒํ˜•

Fig. 7. Turn-off waveforms before and after high-electric field aging

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๊ทธ๋ฆผ 8๋Š” ์ „๋ฅ˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ํŠธ๋žœ์ง€์Šคํ„ฐ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค๊ณผ ๋‹ค์ด์˜ค๋“œ ์†์‹ค์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ธ๋‹ค. ๋…ธํ™” ์ดํ›„ ๋…ธํ™”์‹œ๋ฃŒ (A), ๋…ธํ™”์‹œ๋ฃŒ(B) ๋ชจ๋‘ ์ „๋ฅ˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ํด์ˆ˜๋ก ์†์‹ค ์ฆ๊ฐ€๊ฐ€ ๋” ํฌ๊ฒŒ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ฌ๋‹ค. ํŠธ๋žœ์ง€์Šคํ„ฐ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค์˜ ๋ณ€ํ™”๊ฐ€ ๋‹ค์ด์˜ค๋“œ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค์— ๋น„ํ•ด ๋” ๋‘๋“œ๋Ÿฌ์ง€๊ฒŒ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ฌ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋ฆผ 9๋Š” ์ „๋ฅ˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ํ„ด ์˜จ ์†์‹ค, ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์†์‹ค ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ์—ญํšŒ๋ณต ์†์‹ค์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ธ๋‹ค. ํ„ด ์˜จ ์†์‹ค์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ์ „๋ฅ˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ํด์ˆ˜๋ก ๋” ํฌ๊ฒŒ ๋ณ€ํ™”ํ•œ๋‹ค. ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์†์‹ค์˜ ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ๊ฐ์†Œํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒฝํ–ฅ์„ ๋ณด์ด๋ฉฐ ์ „๋ฅ˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ํด์ˆ˜๋ก ๋…ธํ™” ์ „ ์†Œ์ž์™€์˜ ๊ฐ’์˜ ์ฐจ์ด๊ฐ€ ๋” ํฌ๊ฒŒ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚œ๋‹ค. ํ„ด ์˜จ ์†์‹ค๊ณผ ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์†์‹ค์€ ์„œ๋กœ ์ƒ๋ฐ˜๋˜๋Š” ์ฆ๊ฐ ๊ฒฝํ–ฅ์„ ๋ณด์ธ๋‹ค. ์†Œ์ž์˜ ๋…ธํ™”๊ฐ€ ์ง„ํ–‰๋  ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ์ „๋ฅ˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ํด์ˆ˜๋ก ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค ๋ฐ ํ„ด ์˜จ ์†์‹ค ๊ฐ’์˜ ์ฆ๊ฐ€ ํญ์ด ์ปค์ ธ ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ ํšจ์œจ ์ €ํ•˜๋ฅผ ์ผ์œผํ‚ฌ ๊ฐ€๋Šฅ์„ฑ์ด ๋” ๋†’๋‹ค.

๊ทธ๋ฆผ. 8. ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ์ดํ›„ ์ „๋ฅ˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค ์ธก์ •๊ฐ’ (a) ํŠธ๋žœ์ง€์Šคํ„ฐ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค (b) ๋‹ค์ด์˜ค๋“œ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค

Fig. 8. Measurement of conduction loss according to current magnitude after high electric field aging (a) Transistor conduction loss (b) Diode conduction loss

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๊ทธ๋ฆผ. 9. ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ์ดํ›„ ์ „๋ฅ˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ์Šค์œ„์นญ ์†์‹ค ์ธก์ •๊ฐ’ (a) ํ„ด ์˜จ ์†์‹ค (b) ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์†์‹ค (c) ์—ญํšŒ๋ณต ์†์‹ค

Fig. 9. Measurement of switching loss according to current magnitude after high electric field aging (a) Turn-on loss (b) Turn-off loss (c) Reverse recovery loss

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4. ๊ฒฐ ๊ณผ

์œ„์—์„œ ์ง„ํ–‰ํ•œ ๋”๋ธ” ํŽ„์Šค ํ…Œ์ŠคํŠธ ์†์‹ค ์ธก์ • ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ๋ชจ๋ธ๋งํ•˜์˜€๊ณ  ํ•ด๋‹น ๋ชจ๋ธ๋ง ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ํ”ผ์‹ฌ-์‹œ๋ฎฌ๋ ˆ์ด์…˜์— ์ ์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ์ „๋ ฅ ๋ณ€ํ™˜ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ์—์„œ SiC-MOSFET ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ํšจ์œจ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋ฆผ 10์€ ๊ฐ๊ฐ ํ”ผ์‹ฌ ํ”„๋กœ๊ทธ๋žจ์œผ๋กœ ๊ตฌํ˜„ํ•œ ์–‘๋ฐฉํ–ฅ DC-DC ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ์— ํ•ด๋‹น ์†์‹ค ๋ชจ๋ธ์„ ์ ์šฉํ•œ ๋„์‹ํ‘œ์ด๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋ฆผ 11์€ ๋ถ€์ŠคํŠธ ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ๋กœ ๋™์ž‘ํ•  ๋•Œ, ์ธ๋•ํ„ฐ ์ „๋ฅ˜ ํŒŒํ˜• ๋ฐ ์ถœ๋ ฅ ์ „์•• ํŒŒํ˜•์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ธ๋‹ค. ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ์˜ ์ž…๋ ฅ ์ „์••์€ 200 V์ด๊ณ  ๋…ธํ™” ์ „ ์†Œ์ž์™€ ๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ๋ฃŒ์˜ ์†์‹ค ๋ชจ๋ธ๋ง์„ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜์˜€๊ณ  ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ์˜ ์Šค์œ„์นญ ์†Œ์ž ๋…ธํ™”๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ •ํ•˜์—ฌ ๋…ธํ™” ์ •๋„์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ํšจ์œจ์„ ์ธก์ • ๋ฐ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. S1 ์†Œ์ž๊ฐ€ ๋…ธํ™”๋œ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ(๋…ธํ™” ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ โ… ), S2 ์†Œ์ž๊ฐ€ ๋…ธํ™”๋œ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ(๋…ธํ™” ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ โ…ก) ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  S1, S2 ๋ชจ๋‘ ๋…ธํ™”๋œ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ(๋…ธํ™” ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ โ…ข) ์ด 3๊ฐ€์ง€ ๋…ธํ™” ์ƒํƒœ์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด์„œ ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ ๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ๋ฎฌ๋ ˆ์ด์…˜์„ ์ง„ํ–‰ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์‹œ๋ฎฌ๋ ˆ์ด์…˜์—๋Š” ๋…ธํ™”์‹œ๋ฃŒ(A)์˜ ์†์‹ค ๋ชจ๋ธ๋ง์„ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜์˜€๊ณ  ๋ถ€์ŠคํŠธ ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ๋กœ ๋™์ž‘ํ•  ๋•Œ ์†์‹ค ๋ณ€ํ™” ๋ฐ ํšจ์œจ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ์ธก์ •ํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด์ „ ์Šค์œ„์น˜ ์ƒํƒœ์™€ ํ˜„์žฌ ์Šค์œ„์น˜ ์ƒํƒœ๊ฐ€ ๋™์ผํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š์€ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ์†์‹ค ๋ชจ๋ธ์„ ์ด์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ํ„ด ์˜จ ์†์‹ค, ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์†์‹ค ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ์—ญํšŒ๋ณต ์†์‹ค์„ ์ธก์ •ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋œ๋‹ค. S2 ํŠธ๋žœ์ง€์Šคํ„ฐ์˜ ์˜จ ์ƒํƒœ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ํŠธ๋žœ์ง€์Šคํ„ฐ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค ๋ฐ ๋‹ค์ด์˜ค๋“œ ์ „๋„์†์‹ค์„ ์ธก์ •ํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ดํ›„ ํ•ด๋‹น ์†์‹ค์˜ ์ด ํ•ฉ๊ณผ ์ž…๋ ฅ ํŒŒ์›Œ๋ฅผ ์ด์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ์‹(4)์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ํšจ์œจ์„ ๊ณ„์‚ฐํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค.

(4)
ฮท = $\dfrac{P_{\ln}- P_{Tot}}{P_{\ln}}$ X 100 %

๊ทธ๋ฆผ 12์€ 3๊ฐ€์ง€ ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ ๋…ธํ™” ์ƒํƒœ ๋ฐ ์†Œ์ž ๋…ธํ™” ์ •๋„์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ํšจ์œจ ๋ณ€ํ™” ์ธก์ • ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ธ๋‹ค. ๋…ธํ™” ์ „ ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ๋ฅผ ๊ธฐ์ค€์œผ๋กœ ๋…ธํ™” ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ โ… , โ…ก, โ…ข์˜ ํšจ์œจ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ์ธก์ •ํ•˜์˜€๊ณ  ์ „๋ ฅ ํฌ๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ๋ฐ”๊ฟ”๊ฐ€๋ฉฐ ์ธก์ •ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ํ‰๊ท ์ ์œผ๋กœ ๋…ธํ™” ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ(โ… )๋Š” 0.22%, ๋…ธํ™” ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ(โ…ก)๋Š” 4.4% ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ๋…ธํ™” ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ(โ…ข)๋Š” 4.6% ๊ฐ์†Œํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ถ”๊ฐ€๋กœ, ์ „๋ ฅ ํฌ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ๋” ํด์ˆ˜๋ก ๋” ํฐ ํšจ์œจ ๊ฐ์†Œ๋ฅผ ๋ณด์ด๋Š”๋ฐ, ๊ฐ€์žฅ ๋…ธํ™”๋œ ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ ์ƒํƒœ์ธ 10kW ์ „๋ ฅ์˜ ๋…ธํ™” ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ(โ…ข)์—์„œ 9.59%์˜ ํšจ์œจ ๊ฐ์†Œ๋ฅผ ๋ณด์˜€๋‹ค.

๊ทธ๋ฆผ 13๋Š” 6kW์ผ ๋•Œ ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ ๋…ธํ™” ์ƒํƒœ ๋ฐ ์†Œ์ž ๋…ธํ™” ์ •๋„์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ์†์‹ค ๋ถ„ํฌ ๊ทธ๋ž˜ํ”„๋ฅผ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ธ๋‹ค. ์–‘๋ฐฉํ–ฅ DC-DC ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ๊ฐ€ ๋ถ€์ŠคํŠธ ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ๋กœ ๋™์ž‘ ์‹œ, S1 ์Šค์œ„์นญ ์†Œ์ž์—๋Š” ๋‹ค์ด์˜ค๋“œ์— ์˜ํ•œ ์†์‹ค๋งŒ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋…ธํ™”์˜ ๋”ฐ๋ผ ๋‹ค์ด์˜ค๋“œ ์†์‹ค ๋ณ€ํ™”๋Ÿ‰์€ ํฌ์ง€ ์•Š์œผ๋ฏ€๋กœ ๋…ธํ™” ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ(โ… )์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ๋” ๋‚ฎ์€ ํšจ์œจ ๊ฐ์†Œ๋ฅผ ๋ณด์˜€๋‹ค. ๋ฐ˜๋ฉด, S2 ์†Œ์ž์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ์— ์ „๋ฅ˜๊ฐ€ ๋“œ๋ ˆ์ธ-์†Œ์Šค๋กœ ํ˜๋Ÿฌ ํŠธ๋žœ์ง€์Šคํ„ฐ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค์ด ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜๋Š”๋ฐ, ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ํฐ ํŠธ๋žœ์ง€์Šคํ„ฐ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค์˜ ์ฆ๊ฐ€๋กœ ์ธํ•ด ๋…ธํ™” ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ(โ…ก)๊ณผ ๋…ธํ™” ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ(โ…ข)์—์„œ ๋” ํฐ ์†์‹ค ์ฆ๊ฐ€๋ฅผ ๋ณด์˜€๋‹ค. ๋…ธํ™” ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ(โ… )์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ๋‹ค์ด์˜ค๋“œ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค์ด 12.41W ๋งŒํผ ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜์˜€๊ณ  ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์†์‹ค์—๋Š” ๋ณ€ํ™”๊ฐ€ ์—†๋‹ค. ๋…ธํ™” ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ(โ…ก)์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ํŠธ๋žœ์ง€์Šคํ„ฐ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค์€ 231.5W ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜์˜€๊ณ  ํ„ด ์˜จ ์†์‹ค์€ 5.79W ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋ฐ˜๋ฉด, ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์†์‹ค์€ 1.04 W ๊ฐ์†Œํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋…ธํ™” ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ(โ…ข)์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ํŠธ๋žœ์ง€์Šคํ„ฐ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค, ๋‹ค์ด์˜ค๋“œ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค, ํ„ด ์˜จ ์†์‹ค์ด ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜์˜€๊ณ  ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์†์‹ค์€ ๊ฐ์†Œํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒฝํ–ฅ์„ ๋ณด์˜€๋‹ค. ์—ญํšŒ๋ณต ์†์‹ค์€ ๋ชจ๋“  ๊ฒฝ์šฐ์—์„œ ์†์‹ค ๊ฐ’์ด ๊ฑฐ์˜ ๋ณ€ํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š์•˜๋‹ค. ํ„ด ์˜จ ์†์‹ค๊ณผ ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์†์‹ค์˜ ์„œ๋กœ ์ƒ๋ฐ˜๋œ ์ฆ๊ฐ ํŠน์„ฑ์œผ๋กœ ์ธํ•ด, ์†Œ์ž ๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ ์Šค์œ„์น˜ ์ฒœ์ด ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„์—์„œ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜๋Š” ์†์‹ค์— ํ•ฉ์€ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค์˜ ๋ณ€ํ™”์— ๋น„ํ•ด ์ž‘๊ฒŒ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚œ๋‹ค. ๋…ธํ™” ์ดํ›„ ํŠธ๋žœ์ง€์Šคํ„ฐ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค์ด ์ฐจ์ง€ํ•˜๋Š” ๋น„์ค‘์€ ์ „์ฒด ์†์‹ค์˜ 74 ~ 77%์œผ๋กœ ๋…ธํ™” ์ „ ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ์—์„œ์˜ ํŠธ๋žœ์ง€์Šคํ„ฐ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค ๋น„์ค‘(36%)์— ๋น„ํ•ด ์ƒ๋‹นํžˆ ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ–ˆ๋‹ค.

๊ทธ๋ฆผ. 10. ์–‘๋ฐฉํ–ฅ DC-DC ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ ํšŒ๋กœ๋„

Fig. 10. Bidirectional DC-DC Converter Schematic

../../Resources/kiee/KIEE.2022.71.9.1243/fig10.png

๊ทธ๋ฆผ. 11. ์‹œ๋ฎฌ๋ ˆ์ด์…˜ ํŒŒํ˜• (a) ์ธ๋•ํ„ฐ ์ „๋ฅ˜ (b) ์ถœ๋ ฅ ์ „์••

Fig. 11. Simulation waveform (a) inductor current (b) output voltage

../../Resources/kiee/KIEE.2022.71.9.1243/fig11.png

๊ทธ๋ฆผ. 12. ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ์†Œ์ž ์‚ฌ์šฉ ์–‘๋ฐฉํ–ฅ DC-DC ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ ์ „๋ ฅ ํฌ๊ธฐ์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ํšจ์œจ ๋ณ€ํ™”

Fig. 12. Efficiency change according to power size of bidirectional DC-DC converter using the transistor aging by high electric field

../../Resources/kiee/KIEE.2022.71.9.1243/fig12.png

๊ทธ๋ฆผ. 13. ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ์†Œ์ž ์‚ฌ์šฉ ์–‘๋ฐฉํ–ฅ DC-DC ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ ์†์‹ค ๋ถ„ํฌ๋„

Fig. 13. Bidirectional DC-DC converter loss distribution chart using the transistor aged by high electric field

../../Resources/kiee/KIEE.2022.71.9.1243/fig13.png

5. ๊ฒฐ ๋ก 

๋ณธ ๋…ผ๋ฌธ์—์„œ๋Š” ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ๊ฐ€์† ์‹คํ—˜์„ ํ†ตํ•ด SiC-MOSFET์˜ ๋…ธํ™”๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์†ํ•˜์˜€๊ณ , ์†Œ์ž ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ํŠน์„ฑ ๋ณ€ํ™” ๋ฐ ์ „๋ ฅ ๋ณ€ํ™˜ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ์—์„œ์˜ ์†์‹ค ๋ฐ ํšจ์œจ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์Šค์œ„์น˜ ํŠน์„ฑ ๋ฐ ์†์‹ค ๋ณ€ํ™”๋Š” ๋”๋ธ” ํŽ„์Šค ํ…Œ์ŠคํŠธ๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ์ธก์ •ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ์ดํ›„์—๋Š” ๋†’์•„์ง„ ๋ฌธํ„ฑ์ „์••์œผ๋กœ ์ธํ•ด ํ„ด ์˜จ ์‹œ๊ฐ„์€ ์ง€์—ฐ๋˜๊ณ  ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์‹œ๊ฐ„์€ ๊ฐ์†Œํ•œ๋‹ค. ํ„ด-์˜จ ํŠน์„ฑ์˜ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋Š” ์Šค์œ„์นญ ์‹œ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜๋Š” ์†์‹ค์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์ฃผ๋Š”๋ฐ, ํ„ด ์˜จ ์†์‹ค์€ ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜๊ณ  ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์†์‹ค์€ ๊ฐ์†Œํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒฝํ–ฅ์„ ๋ณด์ธ๋‹ค. ์—ญํšŒ๋ณต ์†์‹ค ๊ฐ’์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ์—๋Š” ํฐ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ๋ณด์ด์ง€ ์•Š์•˜๋‹ค. ํŠธ๋žœ์ง€์Šคํ„ฐ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค๊ณผ ๋‹ค์ด์˜ค๋“œ ์ „๋„์†์‹ค์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ์—๋Š” ์ „๋ฅ˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ์ปค์งˆ์ˆ˜๋ก ๋…ธํ™” ์ „ ์†Œ์ž์™€์˜ ์†์‹ค ์ฐจ์ด๊ฐ€ ๋” ์ปค์กŒ๋‹ค. SiC-MOSFET ๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ ํŠน์„ฑ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋กœ ์ธํ•œ ์Šค์œ„์นญ ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„์˜ ์ฆ๊ฐ€, ๊ฐ์†Œ๋Š” ์†Œ์ž ๋™์ž‘ ์‹œ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜๋Š” ๊ธฐ์ƒ ์˜ค์‹ค๋ ˆ์ด์…˜์—๋„ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์ฃผ๊ฒŒ ๋œ๋‹ค. ๊ณ ์ „๊ณ„ ๋…ธํ™” ์ดํ›„ ์ง€์—ฐ๋œ ํ„ด ์˜จ ์‹œ๊ฐ„์œผ๋กœ ์ธํ•ด ์ „์•• ํ•˜๊ฐ• ์‹œ๊ฐ„์ด ๋” ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋˜์–ด ๊ธฐ์ƒ ์˜ค์‹ค๋ ˆ์ด์…˜ ์„ฑ๋ถ„์ด ๊ฐ์†Œํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋ฐ˜๋ฉด์— ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์‹œ ์ „์•• ์ƒ์Šน ์‹œ๊ฐ„์€ ๊ฐ์†Œํ•˜๋ฏ€๋กœ ๊ธฐ์ƒ ์˜ค์‹ค๋ ˆ์ด์…˜์ด ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ํ•ด๋‹น ์˜ค์‹ค๋ ˆ์ด์…˜ ์„ฑ๋ถ„์€ ๊ณผ์ „์••, ๊ณผ์ „๋ฅ˜, ์†์‹ค ์ฆ๊ฐ€ ๋ฐ EMI ๋…ธ์ด์ฆˆ ์ฆ๊ฐ€๋ฅผ ์œ ๋ฐœํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๊ณ  ์ด๋Š” ์ „๋ ฅ ๋ณ€ํ™˜ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ์— ๋ถ€์ •์ ์ธ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์ค„ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋”๋ธ” ํŽ„์Šค ํ…Œ์ŠคํŠธ๋กœ ์ธก์ •ํ•œ ์†์‹ค ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ์ปค๋ธŒ-ํ”ผํŒ…์„ ํ†ตํ•˜์—ฌ ๋ชจ๋ธ๋งํ•˜์˜€๊ณ  ์ด๋ฅผ ์–‘๋ฐฉํ–ฅ DC-DC ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ์— ์ ์šฉํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๊ทธ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ, ๊ฐ€์žฅ ๋…ธํ™”๋œ ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ ์ƒํƒœ์ธ ๋…ธํ™” ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ(โ…ข)์—์„œ 9.59%์˜ ํšจ์œจ ๊ฐ์†Œ๋ฅผ ๋ณด์˜€๋‹ค. ์†์‹ค ์ฆ๊ฐ์„ ์‚ดํŽด๋ณด์•˜์„ ๋•Œ, ์†Œ์ž ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ์ปจ๋ฒ„ํ„ฐ์—์„œ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜๋Š” ํ„ด ์˜จ ์†์‹ค๊ณผ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค์€ ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋ฐ˜๋ฉด, ํ„ด ์˜คํ”„ ์†์‹ค์ด ๊ฐ์†Œํ•˜์˜€๊ณ  ์—ญํšŒ๋ณต ์†์‹ค์€ ๊ฑฐ์˜ ๋ณ€ํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š์•˜๋‹ค. ํŠนํžˆ, ์Šค์œ„์นญ ์†์‹ค๋ณด๋‹ค ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค์˜ ๋น„์œจ์ด ๋” ๋งŽ์ด ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜์—ฌ ๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ ์ „๋„ ์†์‹ค์˜ ์˜ํ–ฅ๋„๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ๋†’์•„์ง€๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค.

Acknowledgements

์ด ๋…ผ๋ฌธ์€ ์ •๋ถ€(๊ณผํ•™๊ธฐ์ˆ ์ •๋ณดํ†ต์‹ ๋ถ€)์˜ ์žฌ์›์œผ๋กœ ํ•œ๊ตญ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์žฌ๋‹จ (No. 2020R1A2C1013413) ๋ฐ 2021๋…„๋„ ์ •๋ถ€(๊ณผํ•™๊ธฐ์ˆ ์ •๋ณดํ†ต์‹ ๋ถ€)์˜ ์žฌ์›์œผ๋กœ ํ•œ๊ตญ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์žฌ๋‹จ-๊ธฐํ›„๋ณ€ํ™”๋Œ€์‘๊ธฐ์ˆ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ์‚ฌ์—…(2021M1 A2A2060313)์˜ ์ง€์›์„ ๋ฐ›์•„ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰๋œ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋กœ์„œ, ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ถ€์ฒ˜์— ๊ฐ์‚ฌ๋“œ๋ฆฝ๋‹ˆ๋‹ค.

References

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J. H. Song, J. S. Kim, K. B. Park, 2021, Performance Comparison of 3-Level 800V Inverter based on 650-V IGBT and 2-Level 800V Inverter based on 1200-V SiC MOSFET for 800-V Electric Propulsion Systems, The Korean Institute of Electrical Engineers, pp. 1219-1220DOI
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์ €์ž์†Œ๊ฐœ

์ •์žฌ์œค (Jae-Yoon Jeong)
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Jae-Yoon Jeong received his B.S. degree in Physics from ChungAng University, Seoul, South Korea, in 2021, where he is presently working towards his M.S. degree in Electrical and Electronics Engineering.

๊ณฝ์ƒ์‹  (Sang-Shin Kwak)
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Sang-Shin Kwak received his Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering from Texas A\&M University, College Station, TX, USA, in 2005.

From 2007 to 2010, he was an Assistant Professor at Daegu University, Gyeongsan, Korea.

Since 2010, he has been working at Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Korea, where he is presently a Professor.

His current research interests include the design, modeling, control, and analysis of power converters for electric vehicles and renewable energy systems as well as the prognosis and fault tolerant control of power electronics systems.