KJACR - Korean Journal of Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Engineering

International Energy Agency, 2025, Energy and AI, IEA, Paris.

Azarifar, M., Arik, M., Chang, J. Y., 2024, Liquid cooling of data centers: A necessity facing challenges, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 247.

3

Zhang, Y., Shan, K., Li, X., Li, H., Wang, S., 2023, Research and Technologies for next-generation high-temperature data centers: State-of-the-arts and future perspectives, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 171.

4

ISO/IEC, 2016, Information technology — Data centres — Key performance indicators — Part 2: Power usage effectiveness (PUE), ISO/IEC 30134-2:2016.

5

Al Kez, D., Foley, A. M., Hasan Wong, F. W. B. M., Dolfi, A., Srinivasan, G., 2025, AI-driven cooling technologies for high-performance data centres: State-of-the-art review and future directions, Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, Vol. 82.

6

ASHRAE TC 9.9, 2014, Liquid Cooling Guidelines for Datacom Equipment Centers, ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA.

7

Cho, J., 2025, Evaluating the effects of coolant supply temperature on liquid cooling system design and efficiency in data centers, Journal of the Architectural Institute of Korea, Vol. 41, No. 9, pp. 311-321.

8

Heydari, A., Gharaibeh, A. R., Tradat, M., Soud, Q., Manaserh, Y., Radmard, V., Eslami, B., Rodriguez, J., Sammakia, B., 2024, Experimental evaluation of direct-to-chip cold plate liquid cooling for high-heat-density data centers, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 239.

9

Li, X., Guo, S., Sun, H., Liu, S., Wang, X., Wang, L., 2025, Comprehensive assessment of coolants used single-phase immersion cooling data center, Energy, Vol. 340.

10

Zheng, S., Su, C., Yang, X., Zhang, Y., Duan, K., Zhang, Y., Huang, Z., Zhang, Y., Liu, F., Wei, J., 2025, A comprehensive review of single-phase immersion cooling in data centres, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 272.

11

ASHRAE TC 9.9, 2019, Water-Cooled Servers: Common Designs, Components, and Processes, ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA, USA.

12

Kim, J., Choi, H., Lee, S., Lee, H., 2025, Computational study of single-phase immersion cooling for high-energy density server rack for data centers, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 264.

13

Vagiakis, A., Korres, D. N., Tzivanidis, C., 2025, Simulation of natural convection heat transfer in dielectric liquids for single-phase immersion cooling rack server, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 274.

14

Taddeo, P., Romaní, J., Summers, J., Gustafsson, J., Martorell, I., Salom, J., 2023, Experimental and numerical analysis of the thermal behaviour of a single-phase immersion-cooled data centre, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 234.

15

Sun, X., Liu, Z., Ji, S., Yuan, K., 2025, Experimental study on thermal performance of a single-phase immersion cooling unit for high-density computing power data center, International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow, Vol. 112.

16

Huang, Y., Liu, B., Xu, S., Bao, C., Zhong, Y., Zhang, C., 2024, Experimental study on the immersion liquid cooling performance of high-power data center servers, Energy, Vol. 297.

17

Chen, X., Huang, Y., Xu, S., Bao, C., Zhong, Y., Chen, Y., Zhang, C., 2024, Thermal performance evaluation of electronic fluorinated liquids for single-phase immersion liquid cooling, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 220.

18

Sun, X., Han, Z., Li, X., 2022, Simulation study on cooling effect of two-phase liquid-immersion cabinet in data center, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 207.

19

El-Genk, M. S., Pourghasemi, M., 2021, Experiments and correlations of saturation boiling of HFE-7000 dielectric liquid on rough inclined copper surfaces, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 164.

20

Wu, X., Yang, J., Liu, Y., Zhuang, Y., Luo, S., Yan, Y., Xiao, L., Han, X., 2025, Investigations on heat dissipation performance and overall characteristics of two-phase liquid immersion cooling systems for data center, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 239.

21

Kanbur, B. B., Wu, C., Fan, S., Duan, F., 2021, System-level experimental investigations of the direct immersion cooling data center units with thermodynamic and thermoeconomic assessments, Energy, Vol. 217.

22

Yang, C. M., Muneeshwaran, M., Hu, Y., Pottker, G., Yana Motta, S. F., 2025, Pool boiling heat transfer evaluation of next-generation dielectric fluid: OpteonTM 2P50, International Journal of Thermofluids, Vol. 29.

23

Lin, Y., Wang, T. H., Wang, C. C., 2024, Pool boiling performance for Galden® HT-55 subject to smooth, pin fin, and sintered pin fin heat sink, International Journal of Thermal Sciences, Vol. 202.

24

Zhou, G., Zhou, J., Huai, X., Zhou, F., Jiang, Y., 2022, A two-phase liquid immersion cooling strategy utilizing vapor chamber heat spreader for data center servers, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 210.

25

Winter, M., Weibel, J. A., 2023, The capillary length scale determines the influence of bubble-fin interactions and prediction of pool boiling from heat sinks, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 202.

26

Yuki, K., Yuki, K., Ogushi, T., Murakami, M., Numata, T., Ide, T., 2025, Key factors affecting the boiling heat transfer coefficient of FC-72 in saturated pool boiling using lotus-type porous copper, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 238.

27

Shah, Y., Choi, W. W., Senguttuvan, S., Kim, S. M., 2025, Thermal performance evaluation of advanced multistage heat sinks in experimental pool boiling study, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 169.

28

Kibushi, R., Yuki, K., Unno, N., Ogushi, T., Murakami, M., Numata, T., Ide, T., Nomura, H., 2021, Enhancement of the critical heat flux of saturated pool boiling by the breathing phenomenon induced by lotus copper in combination with a grooved heat transfer surface, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 179.

29

Wu, F., Umehara, Y., Etoh, A., Mori, S., 2025, Effects of pore size distribution in a honeycomb porous plate on the onset of nucleate boiling in AE-3000, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 246.

30

Zhou, Z., Hong, S., Wu, Z., Qiu, Q., Sheng, K., 2025, Effects of thermally induced bubbles on the dielectric performance of fluorinated liquid under intense electric field, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 167.

31

Shete, R. K., Laskar, N., Das, M. K., 2025, Geometry-driven high-density heat sink module for enhanced two-phase immersion cooling, Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, Vol. 68.

32

Cho, J., Moon, J. H., 2025, Numerical coupling of energy efficiency and thermal performance for cold plate cooling optimization in high-density compute AI data centers, Energy and Buildings, Vol. 348.

33

Yang, Z., Wang, Y., Yuan, X., Wang, X., Yang, X., Li, Q., 2025, Design and optimization of a staggered counter-current microchannel liquid-cooled plate, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 279.

34

Manaserh, Y. M., Tradat, M. I., Gharaibeh, A. R., Sammakia, B. G., Tipton, R., 2021, Shifting to energy efficient hybrid cooled data centers using novel embedded floor tiles heat exchangers, Energy Conversion and Management, Vol. 247.

35

Samal, S. K., Chang, H.-C., Fulpagare, Y., Wang, C.-C., 2025, Thermal management of data centers: Chip-scale cooling using novel distributed inlet/outlet jet impingement liquid cold plate, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 271.

36

Heydari, A., Gharaibeh, A. R., Tradat, M., Soud, Q., Manaserh, Y., Radmard, V., Eslami, B., Rodriguez, J., Sammakia, B., 2024, Parameters of performance: A deep dive into liquid-to-air CDU assessment, Case Studies in Thermal Engineering, Vol. 64.

37

Zhang, Y.-D., Lin, Y.-C., Wang, C.-C., 2024, Investigation of the single-phase immersion cold plate amid PAO-4 and Noah@3000A - An experimental approach and its numerical verification, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 155.

38

Shrigondekar, H., Lin, Y.-C., Wang, C.-C., 2023, Investigations on performance of single-phase immersion cooling system, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 206.

39

Tamvada, S. R., Moghaddam, S., 2023, Data center energy efficiency enhancement potential of a membrane-assisted phase-change heat sink, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 228.

40

Xue, Z. H., Ai, B. C., Qu, W., 2023, Data center energy conservation study utilizing loop heat pipes as a chip-level cooling technique and its industrial application, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 220.

41

Dhanalakota, P., Abraham, S., Mahapatra, P. S., Sammakia, B., Pattamatta, A., 2022, Thermal performance of a two-phase flat thermosyphon with surface wettability modifications, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 204.

42

Fallahtafti, N., Hosseini, F., Hadad, Y., Rangarajan, S., Hoang, C. H., Sammakia, B., 2024, Experimental characterization and geometrical optimization of a commercial two-phase designed cold plate, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 155.

43

Ahmad, A., Sulaiman, M. W., Wang, C.-C., 2025, Experimental investigation of the two-phase heat transfer performance of a novel hybrid jet impingement microchannel heat sink subject to dielectric fluid HFE-7000, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 165.

44

Khoshvaght-Aliabadi, M., Ghodrati, P., Kang, Y. T., 2025, Performance analysis of supercritical carbon dioxide as a coolant in cold plate systems, Energy, Vol. 314.

45

Qin, X., Shen, A., Duan, H., Liu, H., Wang, D., Liu, H., Wang, G., 2025, Investigating 4E analyses and multi-objective optimization of a novel data center compression/ejection transcritical CO2 cooling system, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 264.

46

Mazaheri, N., Mwesigye, A., 2024, Novel high heat flux thermal management with combined supercritical CO2 and a microjet heat sink, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 256.

47

Lou, X., Zhang, Q., Zou, S., Meng, F., Yue, C., Zhou, H., Wen, L., Long, G., 2025, Field study on the temperature uniformity of containerized batteries using a two-phase liquid cooling system under mismatched conditions, International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol. 170, pp. 85-97.

48

Cheng, H., Yang, T., Zhao, Y., Wang, L., Ren, K., Yuan, W., 2025, Effect of load variation on the performance of pump-driven chip-level two-phase cooling system, International Journal of Thermal Sciences, Vol. 217.

49

Zamanifard, A., Wang, C.-C., 2025, An experimental study on a novel two-phase loop thermosyphon applicable for cooling in 2U servers, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 278.

50

Patel, A., Yogi, K., Sahu, G., Wei, T., 2025, Direct-on-chip two-phase jet impingement cooling of multichip packages: Distributed inlet-outlet nozzles, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 252.

51

Xie, Y., Su, J., Bao, J., Wu, H., Chen, L., Zhang, H., 2025, Experimental investigation on active temperature control performance of a loop heat pipe integrated with thermoelectric coolers, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 279.

52

Zhang, Y., Wang, G., Wang, X., Wang, J., Xue, H., Luan, T., 2025, Performance and energy consumption study of a dual-evaporator loop heat pipe for chip-level cooling, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 258.

KJACRKorean Journal of
Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Engineering

Korean Journal of Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Engineering

ISO Journal TitleKorean J. Air-Cond. Refrig. Eng.

Journal Search

Journal XML

References

KJACRKorean Journal ofAir-Conditioning and Refrigeration Engineering