Mobile QR Code QR CODE : Journal of the Korean Institute of Illuminating and Electrical Installation Engineers

Journal of the Korean Institute of Illuminating and Electrical Installation Engineers

ISO Journal TitleJ Korean Inst. IIIum. Electr. Install. Eng.

  1. (Undergraduate Student, Department of Electrical Eng., Chungbuk National Univ, Korea)
  2. (Combined Master and Doctoral course, School of Electrical Eng. Chungbuk National Univ., Korea)
  3. (Technicae director, Research and Development Center, Woojin Industrial Systems Co. Ltd., Goesan, Chungbuk, Korea)



Lithium-ion battery, Incremental capacity(ICA), Degradation mode(DM), Loss of lithium inventory(LLI), Loss of active material(LAM), Battery aging

1. ์„œ ๋ก 

๋ฆฌํŠฌ์ด์˜จ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๋†’์€ ์—๋„ˆ์ง€ ๋ฐ€๋„์™€ ๊ธด ์ˆ˜๋ช…์œผ๋กœ ์ธํ•ด ์ „๊ธฐ ์ž๋™์ฐจ, ์—๋„ˆ์ง€์ €์žฅ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ, ํœด๋Œ€์šฉ ์ „์ž๊ธฐ๊ธฐ ๋“ฑ ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ๋ถ„์•ผ์—์„œ ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ ๋ฆฌํŠฌ์ด์˜จ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ์ง€์†์ ์ธ ์‚ฌ์šฉ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰๊ณผ ์ถœ๋ ฅ์ด ์ €ํ•˜๋˜๋Š” ๋…ธํ™”๊ฐ€ ์ง„ํ–‰๋˜๋ฉฐ ์ด๋Š” ๊ธด ์ˆ˜๋ช…์˜ ์œ ์ง€๊ฐ€ ์š”๊ตฌ๋˜๋Š” ์• ํ”Œ๋ฆฌ์ผ€์ด์…˜์—์„œ ์ค‘์š”ํ•œ ๋ฌธ์ œ๋กœ ์ž‘์šฉํ•œ๋‹ค[1]. ๋˜ํ•œ, ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ๋…ธํ™”๋Š” ๋ฐ˜๋ณต๋œ ์‚ฌ์šฉ์œผ๋กœ ๊ฐ€์†๋˜๊ณ  ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰ ๊ฐ์†Œ์™€ ๋‚ด๋ถ€ ์ €ํ•ญ ์ฆ๊ฐ€ ๋“ฑ์˜ ์ „๋ฐ˜์ ์ธ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ ์ €ํ•˜ ๋ฟ๋งŒ ์•„๋‹ˆ๋ผ ์—ดํญ์ฃผ์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ์•ˆ์ „์‚ฌ๊ณ ์™€๋„ ์ง๊ฒฐ๋œ๋‹ค[2]. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ํšจ์œจ์ ์œผ๋กœ ์•ˆ์ „ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด์„œ๋Š” ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋…ธํ™” ์ •๋„๋ฅผ ์ •ํ™•ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ์˜ˆ์ธกํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด ํ•„์š”ํ•˜๋‹ค. ์ด๋ฅผ ์œ„ํ•˜์—ฌ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ •๋Ÿ‰์ ์ธ ์ง€ํ‘œ๋ฅผ ์ œ๊ณตํ•˜๊ณ  ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ๊ธฐ๋ฒ•์ด ์ œ์•ˆ๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Š” Fig. 1๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์ด ์ง์ ‘ ์ธก์ • ๋ฐฉ์‹, ๋ชจ๋ธ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜ ๋ฐฉ์‹, ํ•„ํ„ฐ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜ ๋ฐฉ์‹, ์ฆ๋ถ„ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜ ๋ฐฉ์‹์œผ๋กœ ๋‚˜๋ˆŒ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค.

Fig. 1. Degradation estimation methodologies

../../Resources/kiiee/JIEIE.2024.38.6.445/fig1.png

์ง์ ‘ ์ธก์ • ๋ฐฉ์‹์€ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ๋ฌผ๋ฆฌ์  ํŠน์„ฑ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ์ธก์ •ํ•˜์—ฌ ์ƒํƒœ๋ฅผ ์ถ”์ •ํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•์œผ๋กœ ์ „๋ฅ˜ ์ ์‚ฐ๋ฒ•, ๋‚ด๋ถ€ ์ €ํ•ญ ์ธก์ •, ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ์ „๊ธฐํ™”ํ•™์  ์ž„ํ”ผ๋˜์Šค ๋ถ„๊ด‘๋ฒ•(Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy; EIS)์ด ๋Œ€ํ‘œ์ ์ด๋‹ค. ์ „๋ฅ˜ ์ ์‚ฐ๋ฒ•์€ ์ถฉ์ „๊ณผ ๋ฐฉ์ „ ์ค‘์— ์ถ•์ ๋œ ์ „๋ฅ˜๋ฅผ ์ธก์ •ํ•˜์—ฌ ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰์„ ์ถ”์ •ํ•˜๊ณ , ๋‚ด๋ถ€ ์ €ํ•ญ ์ธก์ •์€ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋‚ด๋ถ€์˜ ์ €ํ•ญ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ์ƒํƒœ๋ฅผ ํ‰๊ฐ€ํ•œ๋‹ค[3]. EIS๋Š” ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ์ €ํ•ญ, ์ „ํ•˜ ์ „๋‹ฌ ๋ฐ˜์‘ ๋“ฑ์„ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜์—ฌ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ ์ €ํ•˜์˜ ์›์ธ์„ ๊ทœ๋ช…ํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ ์œ ์šฉํ•˜๋‹ค[4]. ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๋ฐฉ์‹๋“ค์€ ์‹ค์‹œ๊ฐ„ ์ถ”์ •์ด ๋ถˆ๊ฐ€๋Šฅํ•˜๋ฉฐ, ๋ณต์žกํ•œ ์žฅ๋น„์™€ ๊ธด ๋ถ„์„ ์‹œ๊ฐ„์ด ์š”๊ตฌ๋œ๋‹ค๋Š” ๋‹จ์ ์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค.

๋ชจ๋ธ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜ ๋ฐฉ์‹์€ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ๋ฌผ๋ฆฌํ™”ํ•™์  ์›๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ๋ฐ”ํƒ•์œผ๋กœ ๋ชจ๋ธ์„ ๊ตฌ์ถ•ํ•˜์—ฌ ์ƒํƒœ๋ฅผ ์ถ”์ •ํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐฉ์‹์ด๋‹ค. ์ „๊ธฐํ™”ํ•™์  ๋ชจ๋ธ, ๋“ฑ๊ฐ€ํšŒ๋กœ ๋ชจ๋ธ์ด ๋Œ€ํ‘œ์ ์ด๋‹ค[5]. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๋ชจ๋ธ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜ ์ถ”์ •์€ ๋‚ด๋ถ€์˜ ์ „๊ธฐํ™”ํ•™์  ๋ฐ˜์‘์„ ์ƒ์„ธํžˆ ์„ค๋ช…ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์ง€๋งŒ, ๋งค์šฐ ๋ณต์žกํ•˜๊ณ  ๊ณ„์‚ฐ ๋น„์šฉ์ด ๋†’๋‹ค๋Š” ๋‹จ์ ์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๋ชจ๋ธ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜ ๋ฐฉ์‹์€ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ํŠน์„ฑ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ์ ์ ˆํ•œ ๋ชจ๋ธ์„ ์„ ํƒํ•ด์•ผ ํ•˜๋ฉฐ, ๋ชจ๋ธ๋ง ์˜ค๋ฅ˜๊ฐ€ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜๋ฉด ์ƒํƒœ ์ถ”์ •์˜ ์‹ ๋ขฐ๋„๊ฐ€ ๋‚ฎ์•„์ง„๋‹ค.

ํ•„ํ„ฐ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜ ๋ฐฉ์‹์€ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ๋™์  ํŠน์„ฑ์„ ์ถ”์ •ํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋œ๋‹ค. ์นผ๋งŒ ํ•„ํ„ฐ๋ฅผ ํ† ๋Œ€๋กœ ํ™•์žฅ ์นผ๋งŒ ํ•„ํ„ฐ, ๋ฌดํ–ฅ ์นผ๋งŒ ํ•„ํ„ฐ ๋“ฑ ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์ข…๋ฅ˜์˜ ํ•„ํ„ฐ๊ฐ€ ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋œ๋‹ค. ํ•„ํ„ฐ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜ ๋ฐฉ์‹์€ ๋…ธ์ด์ฆˆ๊ฐ€ ํฌํ•จ๋œ ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ๋ฅผ ํšจ๊ณผ์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ฒ˜๋ฆฌํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค๋Š” ์žฅ์ ์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ ํ•„ํ„ฐ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜ ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ• ๋˜ํ•œ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋ชจ๋ธ์— ์˜์กดํ•˜๋ฏ€๋กœ, ๋ชจ๋ธ์˜ ์ •ํ™•์„ฑ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ์ถ”์ • ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์ด ์ขŒ์šฐ๋œ๋‹ค[6, 7].

๋ฐ˜๋ฉด, ์ฆ๋ถ„ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜ ๋ฐฉ์‹์€ ์ „์••, ์ „๋ฅ˜, ์˜จ๋„์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ์ง์ ‘์  ์ง€ํ‘œ๋“ค์„ ๋ฏธ๋ถ„์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ธฐ๋ฒ•์œผ๋กœ ์ฆ๋ถ„ ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰ ๋ถ„์„๋ฒ•(Incremental Capacity Analysis; ICA)์ด ๋Œ€ํ‘œ์ ์ด๋‹ค. ICA๋Š” ์ „์•• ๋ณ€ํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ์ „์ฒด์ ์ธ ์ „์•• ์˜์—ญ์—์„œ ํ‘œํ˜„ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ธฐ๋ฒ•์ด๋‹ค. IC ๊ณก์„ ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋‚ด๋ถ€์ƒํƒœ๋ฅผ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜๋ฉฐ ์ด๋Š” ์ถ”๊ฐ€์ ์ธ ์žฅ๋น„ ์—†์ด ์ธก์ •๋˜๋Š” ์ „๋ฅ˜์™€ ์ „์••์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ๊ณ„์‚ฐํ•˜์—ฌ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์„ ์‹ค์‹œ๊ฐ„์œผ๋กœ ์ธก์ •ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค[8]. ํŠนํžˆ IC ๊ณก์„ ์˜ peak, area์˜ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ๋ฆฌํŠฌ์ด์˜จ์› ์†์‹ค(Loss of Lithium Inventory, LLI), ํ™œ์„ฑ ๋ฌผ์งˆ ์†์‹ค(Loss of Active Material, LAM), ์ „๋„์„ฑ ์†์‹ค(Conductivity Loss, CL) ๋“ฑ์˜ ๋‚ด๋ถ€ ๋…ธํ™” ์ƒํƒœ(Degradation Mode; DM)๋ฅผ ๋ถ„์„ํ•œ๋‹ค. ํŠนํžˆ LLI์™€ LAM์€ CL์— ๋น„ํ•ด ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰ ๊ฐ์†Œ์™€ ๋”์šฑ ์ง์ ‘์ ์ธ ์—ฐ๊ด€์„ฑ์„ ๋ณด์—ฌ ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ๋Š” LLI์™€ LAM๋งŒ์„ ์ด์šฉํ•ด ๋ถ„์„ํ•œ๋‹ค[9, 10]. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ICA๋Š” ์ „๊ธฐ์  ์‹คํ—˜๋งŒ์œผ๋กœ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋‚ด๋ถ€์˜ ํ™”ํ•™์  ์ƒํƒœ๋ฅผ ์„ธ๋ฐ€ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜์—ฌ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ ์ €ํ•˜์˜ ๋ฉ”์ปค๋‹ˆ์ฆ˜์„ ๋ช…ํ™•ํžˆ ํŒŒ์•…ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ๊ฐ•๋ ฅํ•œ ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•๋ก ์ด๋‹ค. ์ด๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ๋…ธํ™” ์›์ธ์„ ๊ตฌ์ฒด์ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ตฌ๋ถ„ํ•˜๊ณ , ์‹ค์‹œ๊ฐ„์œผ๋กœ ์ถ”์ •ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค๋Š” ์ ์—์„œ ๊ธฐ์กด์˜ ๋ฐฉ์‹๋“ค์— ๋น„ํ•ด ๋” ํšจ์œจ์ ์ด๊ณ  ์‹ค์šฉ์ ์ธ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์ƒํƒœ ์ง„๋‹จ ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•์œผ๋กœ ํ‰๊ฐ€๋œ๋‹ค[11, 12].

์ง€๊ธˆ๊นŒ์ง€ ์ฆ๋ถ„ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜ ๋ฐฉ์‹์„ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์œผ๋กœ ํ•œ ๋ฆฌํŠฌ์ด์˜จ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ๋…ธํ™” ๋ถ„์„์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๋งŽ์€ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋“ค์ด ์ˆ˜ํ–‰๋˜์–ด์™”๋‹ค[13-16]. [13]์€ LCO์™€ NCO๋ฅผ ํ˜ผํ•ฉํ•œ ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ(740mAh)์˜ ๋…ธํ™”๋ฅผ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜๊ณ ์ž OCV-SOC์˜ ๊ณก์„ ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด LLI์™€ LAM์„ ์˜ˆ์ธกํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. [14]๋Š” NCMA ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ(2500mAh)์˜ ์ง„๋™๊ณผ ๊ณ ์˜จ์˜ ํ™˜๊ฒฝ ์กฐ๊ฑด์—์„œ IC ๊ณก์„ ์˜ peak์™€ area ๋ณ€ํ™” ์ถ”์ด๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด SOH(State of Health)๋ฅผ ์˜ˆ์ธกํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. [15]๋Š” NCM ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ (25000mAh)์˜ ๊ณ ์˜จ ์กฐ๊ฑด์—์„œ ICA๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•˜์—ฌ ๋…ธํ™”๋ฅผ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜์˜€์œผ๋ฉฐ ๊ทนํ•œ์˜ ๋™์ž‘ ํ™˜๊ฒฝ์—์„œ ์†์ƒ๋œ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ์žฌ์‚ฌ์šฉ์„ฑ์„ ์—ฐ๊ตฌํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. [16]์€ NCM๊ณผ LMO๊ฐ€ ํ˜ผํ•ฉ๋œ ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ(1900mAh)์˜ ๋…ธํ™” ๋ฉ”์ปค๋‹ˆ์ฆ˜์„ ICA๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜๊ณ  ๋…ธํ™” ๋‹จ๊ณ„๋ณ„๋กœ ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰๊ณผ DM์˜ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๋ถ„์„ํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๊ธฐ์กด ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋“ค์€ ๋Œ€๋ถ€๋ถ„ ๋‹จ์ผ ์ข…๋ฅ˜์˜ ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์— ๊ด€ํ•œ ๋…ธํ™” ๋ฉ”์ปค๋‹ˆ์ฆ˜์„ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ์œผ๋‚˜ ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ์˜ ์ข…๋ฅ˜์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋“ค ๊ฐ„์˜ ๋น„๊ต ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” ๋ถ€์กฑํ•œ ์ƒํ™ฉ์ด๋‹ค.

๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ๋Š” ์„œ๋กœ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์„ธ ์ข…๋ฅ˜์˜ ๋ฆฌํŠฌ์ด์˜จ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ๋™์ผํ•œ ๋™์ž‘์กฐ๊ฑด์—์„œ ICA์„ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์œผ๋กœ ํ•œ ๋…ธํ™” ๋ถ„์„์„ ํ†ตํ•˜์—ฌ ๋น„๊ตํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ด ๋…ผ๋ฌธ์˜ ๊ตฌ์„ฑ์€ ๋‹ค์Œ๊ณผ ๊ฐ™๋‹ค. 2์žฅ์—์„œ๋Š” ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋…ธํ™”๋ฅผ ์œ„ํ•œ ์‹คํ—˜ ๊ตฌ์„ฑ์„ ์†Œ๊ฐœํ•˜๋ฉฐ 3์žฅ์—์„œ๋Š” ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋ณ„ IC ๊ณก์„ ์„ ๋ถ„์„ํ•œ๋‹ค. 4์žฅ์—์„œ๋Š” IC ๊ณก์„ ์„ ์ด์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ LLI์™€ LAM๋ฅผ ๊ณ„์‚ฐํ•˜์—ฌ DM์„ ์–‘์ ์œผ๋กœ ํŒŒ์•…ํ•˜๊ณ  ์ด๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•˜์—ฌ ๊ฐ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ๋…ธํ™” ํŠน์ง•์„ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜์—ฌ ๋น„๊ตํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋งˆ์ง€๋ง‰ 5์žฅ์—์„œ๋Š” ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์˜ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ์ •๋ฆฌํ•œ๋‹ค.

2. ๋…ธํ™” ์‹คํ—˜ ๊ตฌ์„ฑ

๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ๋Š” ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ๋ณ„ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋…ธํ™” ํŠน์„ฑ์„ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ์‹คํ—˜์— ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋œ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์ข…๋ฅ˜๋Š” NCM๊ณผ NCA ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ๊ฐ€ ํ˜ผํ•ฉ๋œ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ(INR 18650-25R), LCO ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ(ICR 18650-26J), NCM ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ(INR 18650-29E)์ด๋‹ค. ๊ฐ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ์ƒ์„ธ ์‚ฌ์–‘์€ Table 1์— ์ •๋ฆฌ๋˜์–ด ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ์„œ๋กœ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ๋…ธํ™” ํŠน์„ฑ์„ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด์„œ ๊ณต์นญ ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰, ๊ณต์นญ ์ „์••, ์ตœ๋Œ€ ์ถฉ์ „ ์ „์••์ด ์œ ์‚ฌํ•œ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋“ค์„ ์„ ์ •ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค.

๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋…ธํ™” ์‹คํ—˜์€ Fig. 2์™€ ๊ฐ™์ด ๊ตฌ์„ฑ๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ๊ฐ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ์ „์šฉ ์…€ ์ง€๊ทธ์— ๊ณ ์ •ํ•œ ํ›„ ํ•ญ์˜จยทํ•ญ์Šต ์ฑ”๋ฒ„์— ๋„ฃ์–ด์„œ ์‹คํ—˜์„ ์ง„ํ–‰ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ฑ”๋ฒ„๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ์˜จ๋„ 25ยฐC, ์Šต๋„ 65%๋กœ ์ผ์ •ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ์‹คํ—˜ํ™˜๊ฒฝ์ด ์œ ์ง€๋˜์—ˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์ถฉยท๋ฐฉ์ „๊ธฐ๋Š” ๋ฏธ๋ฆฌ ์„ค์ •๋œ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ํ”„๋กœํŒŒ์ผ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ์ถฉ์ „๊ณผ ๋ฐฉ์ „ ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ํœด์ง€์‹œ์ผฐ๋‹ค. Host PC๋Š” ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์‚ฌ์ดํด์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ์ „์••๊ณผ ์ „๋ฅ˜ ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ๋ฅผ ์‹ค์‹œ๊ฐ„์œผ๋กœ ์ˆ˜์ง‘ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ํ”„๋กœํŒŒ์ผ์€ CC-CV(Constant Current โ€“ Constant Voltage) ์ถฉ์ „, CC ๋ฐฉ์ „, ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  30๋ถ„์˜ ํœด์ง€ ์‹œ๊ฐ„์„ ์ฃผ๊ธฐ๋กœ ํ•œ ๋ฒˆ์˜ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์‚ฌ์ดํด์„ ๊ฐ€์ง€๋„๋ก ์ž‘์„ฑํ•˜์˜€์œผ๋ฉฐ ์ด๋ฅผ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์œผ๋กœ ์ด 100์‚ฌ์ดํด์˜ ๋…ธํ™” ์‹คํ—˜์„ ์ง„ํ–‰ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์‹คํ—˜ ๋™์•ˆ์˜ ์ถฉยท๋ฐฉ์ „์œจ(Current rate; C-rate)์€ 0.5 C-rate๋กœ ๋‚ฎ๊ฒŒ ์„ค์ •๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ๋‚ฎ์€ C-rate์—์„œ ICA๋ฅผ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰ํ•  ๊ฒฝ์šฐ, ๋‚ด๋ถ€ ์ €ํ•ญ์˜ ์˜ํ–ฅ์ด ์ ๊ณ  ์ „์•• ์ƒ์Šน์ด ๋Š๋ ค์ ธ peak์™€ valley๊ฐ€ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜๋Š” ์ „์•• ๋ฒ”์œ„๋ฅผ ๋”์šฑ ์„ธ๋ฐ€ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋ถ„์„ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์ด๋‹ค[17, 18]. ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ํ”„๋กœํŒŒ์ผ์— ์˜ํ•œ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์‚ฌ์ดํด ์‹คํ—˜์„ ํ†ตํ•ด์„œ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์ „์••๊ณผ ์ „๋ฅ˜์˜ ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ๊ฐ€ ์‹ค์‹œ๊ฐ„์œผ๋กœ ์ˆ˜์ง‘์ด ๋˜๋ฉฐ ๋…ธํ™” ๋ถ„์„์€ CC ์ถฉ์ „ ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„์˜ ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ๋งŒ์„ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์‹ค์ œ ์• ํ”Œ๋ฆฌ์ผ€์ด์…˜์—์„œ๋Š” ์‚ฌ์šฉ์ž์˜ ํŒจํ„ด์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ๋™์  ๋ฐฉ์ „์ด ์ด๋ฃจ์–ด์ง€๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์— ๋ณธ ์‹คํ—˜์—์„œ์˜ CC ๋ฐฉ์ „ ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ๋Š” ๋…ธํ™” ๋ถ„์„์—์„œ ์ œ์™ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ, ICA๋Š” ์ „์•• ๋ณ€ํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰์˜ ๋ฏธ์„ธํ•œ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ธฐ๋ฒ•์ด๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์— ์ „์••์ด ์ผ์ •ํ•œ ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„์—์„œ๋Š” ์œ ์˜๋ฏธํ•œ peak์™€ valley๊ฐ€ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š์•„ ์œ ํšจํ•œ ๋ถ„์„์ด ์–ด๋ ต๋‹ค. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ CC ๋ฐฉ์ „ ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„๊ณผ ๋งˆ์ฐฌ๊ฐ€์ง€๋กœ CV ์ถฉ์ „ ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„์˜ ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ๋ฅผ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š์•˜๋‹ค. ์œ„์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ์ด์œ ๋กœ ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ๋Š” CC ์ถฉ์ „ ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„์˜ ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ๋ฅผ ํ™œ์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋‚ด๋ถ€์˜ ์ €ํ•˜ ๋ฉ”์ปค๋‹ˆ์ฆ˜์„ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜๊ณ , ํŠนํžˆ ์ „์•• ๋ณ€ํ™”์™€ ๊ด€๋ จ๋œ ์ •๋ณด๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ๋…ธํ™” ํŠน์„ฑ์„ ๋” ์ •๋ฐ€ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ์ถ”์ ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค.

Fig. 2. Test bench for analyzing aging of lithium-ion batteries according to cathode material

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Table 1. Specifications of lithium-ion batteries with different cathode materials

Battery

INR 18650-25R

ICR 18650-26J

INR 18650-29E

Cathode Material

NCMA

LCO

NCM

Nominal Capacity[mAh]

2500

2600

2850

Nominal Voltage[V]

3.6

3.63

3.65

Charging/Discharging Cut-off Voltage[V]

4.2/2.5

4.2/3.0

4.2/2.5

Fig. 3์€ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ํ”„๋กœํŒŒ์ผ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ๋„ค ๋ฒˆ์˜ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์‚ฌ์ดํด ๋™์•ˆ ์ธก์ •๋œ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์ „์••(ํŒŒ๋ž€์ƒ‰ ํŒŒํ˜•)๊ณผ ์ „๋ฅ˜ ํŒŒํ˜•(๋ถ‰์€์ƒ‰ ํŒŒํ˜•)์„ ์ธก์ •ํ•œ ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ค. ๋™์ผํ•œ C-rate์˜ ์ถฉ์ „ ์ „๋ฅ˜์—์„œ ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ์ „์••์€ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ํŒŒํ˜•์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ธ๋‹ค. INR 18650-25R๊ณผ INR 18650-29E ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ์œ ์‚ฌํ•œ ํŒจํ„ด์„ ๊ฐ€์ง€๋ฉฐ ์ถฉ์ „๋จ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์ „์••์ด ์ผ์ •ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ์— ๋ฐ˜ํ•ด์„œ ICR 18650โ€“26J ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ์ „์••์ด ์ปค์งˆ์ˆ˜๋ก ์ถฉ์ „์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ์ „์••์ด ๊ฐ€ํŒŒ๋ฅด๊ฒŒ ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค.

Fig. 3. Battery voltage and current waveforms measured over four battery cycles according to the battery profile: (a) INR 18650-25R, (b) ICR 18650โ€“26J, (c) INR 18650-29E

../../Resources/kiiee/JIEIE.2024.38.6.445/fig3.png

3. ์ฆ๋ถ„์šฉ๋Ÿ‰ ๋ถ„์„๋ฒ• (ICA)

ICA๋Š” ์‹ค์‹œ๊ฐ„์œผ๋กœ ์ธก์ •๋˜๋Š” ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ์ „์••๊ณผ ์ „๋ฅ˜ ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ง€๊ณ  ์ˆ˜์‹ (1)๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์ด ์ „์•• ๋ณ€ํ™”(dV)์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰ ๋ณ€ํ™”(dQ)๋ฅผ ๊ณ„์‚ฐํ•˜์—ฌ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ธ๋‹ค[19].

(1)
$IC =\dfrac{d Q}{d V}[Ah/V]$

์—ฌ๊ธฐ์„œ Q๋Š” ์ถฉยท๋ฐฉ์ „ ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„ ๋™์•ˆ ์ธ๊ฐ€๋œ ์ „๋ฅ˜๋ฅผ ์ ๋ถ„ํ•˜์—ฌ ๊ณ„์‚ฐ๋˜๋Š” ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰ ๊ฐ’์ด๋‹ค. IC(Incremental Capacity)๋Š” ์ˆ˜์‹(1)์—์„œ์™€ ๊ฐ™์ด ์ผ์ •ํ•œ dV์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ๋ณ€ํ™”ํ•˜๋Š” dQ๋ฅผ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ด๊ณ  ๊ณ„์‚ฐ๋œ IC ๊ณก์„ ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์—ดํ™”์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ถ”๊ฐ€์ ์ธ ์ •๋ณด๋ฅผ ์–ป์„ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. IC ๊ณก์„ ์˜ peak๋Š” ๋‚ฎ์€ ์ „์•• ๋ณ€ํ™” ๋™์•ˆ ๋†’์€ ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰ ๋ณ€ํ™”๊ฐ€ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•  ๋•Œ ์ƒ์„ฑ๋œ๋‹ค. IC ๊ณก์„ ์˜ peak๋Š” ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ์—ดํ™”๋จ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ๋ณ€ํ™”ํ•˜๊ฒŒ๋˜๊ณ  peak ๋ณ€ํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ IC ๊ณก์„  ์•„๋ž˜์˜ ๋ฉด์ ๋„ ๋ณ€ํ™”ํ•˜๋ฉฐ ํ•ด๋‹น ์ •๋ณด๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ DM์„ ๋ถ„์„ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค.

์ด 100์‚ฌ์ดํด์˜ ๋…ธํ™” ์‹คํ—˜์ด ์ˆ˜ํ–‰๋˜์—ˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ ๊ฐ ์‚ฌ์ดํด์˜ CC ์ถฉ์ „ ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„ ๋™์•ˆ ์ธก์ •๋œ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์ „์••๊ณผ ์ „๋ฅ˜ ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ๋ฅผ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ๊ณ„์‚ฐํ•œ IC ๊ณก์„ ์€ Fig. 4์— ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ด์—ˆ๋‹ค. Fig. 4์˜ Pn๋Š” IC ๊ณก์„ ์˜ peak ์ง€์ ๋“ค์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ธ ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ค. ๊ฒ€์€์ƒ‰๊ณผ ๋นจ๊ฐ„์ƒ‰ ๋™๊ทธ๋ผ๋ฏธ๋กœ ํ™•๋Œ€๋œ ๋ถ€๋ถ„์€ ๊ฐ๊ฐ IC ๊ณก์„ ์˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ ๋ณ€ํ™”๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ํฐ peak ์ง€์ ๊ณผ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ๋†’์€ peak ์ง€์ ์„ ํ™•๋Œ€ํ•œ ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ค. Fig. 4์—์„œ ๋ณด๋Š” ๊ฒƒ๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์ด ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์‚ฌ์ดํด์˜ ์ˆ˜๊ฐ€ ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•จ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ๋…ธํ™”๊ฐ€ ์ง„ํ–‰๋˜์–ด Pn์—์„œ์˜ IC ๊ณก์„ ์˜ ๋†’์ด๋Š” ๊ฐ์†Œํ•˜๋ฉฐ ๊ณก์„  ์•„๋ž˜์˜ ์ „์ฒด ๋ฉด์ ์ด ์ค„์–ด๋“ค๊ฒŒ ๋œ๋‹ค. ์ด๊ฒƒ์€ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ๋…ธํ™”๋˜๋ฉด ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰์€ ์ค„์–ด๋“ค๊ณ  ๋ฐ˜๋ฉด์— ๋‚ด๋ถ€ ์ €ํ•ญ์˜ ์ฆ๊ฐ€๋กœ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์ „์••์ด ์ปค์ง€๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์ด๋‹ค[9].

์„ธ ์ข…๋ฅ˜์˜ ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์—์„œ ๊ณตํ†ต์œผ๋กœ ๋‚ฎ์€ ์ „์•• ์˜์—ญ์—์„œ๋Š” IC๊ฐ€ 0์— ๊ทผ์‚ฌํ•œ ๊ฐ’์„ ๊ฐ€์ง€๊ฒŒ ๋œ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Š” ์ „๋ฅ˜๊ฐ€ ์ธ๊ฐ€๋  ๋•Œ ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰(Q)์˜ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋Ÿ‰์— ๋น„ํ•˜์—ฌ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋‚ด๋ถ€ ์ €ํ•ญ์œผ๋กœ ์ธํ•˜์—ฌ ์ „์••(V)์˜ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋Ÿ‰์ด ๋งค์šฐ ํฌ๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์ด๋‹ค. INR 18650-25R ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์™€ INR 18650-29E ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๊ณตํ†ต์ ์œผ๋กœ NCM ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ๋กœ ๊ตฌ์„ฑ๋˜๋ฏ€๋กœ Fig. 4(a)์™€ (c)์—์„œ ๋ณด๋Š” ๊ฒƒ๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์ด IC ๊ณก์„ ์ด ์ „์ฒด์ ์œผ๋กœ ์œ ์‚ฌํ•œ ํŠน์ง•์„ ๋ณด์˜€๋‹ค. ๋‘ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” 4๊ฐœ์˜ peak ์ง€์ (P1โˆผP4)์„ ๊ฐ€์กŒ์œผ๋ฉฐ ๊ฐ ์ง€์ ์˜ ์œ„์น˜ ๋˜ํ•œ ๊ฑฐ์˜ ๊ฐ™์•˜๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ 4.1V ๋ถ€๊ทผ์— ์œ„์น˜ํ•œ P4์—์„œ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ IC ๊ณก์„ ์˜ ๋†’์ด ๋ณ€ํ™”๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ํฌ๊ฒŒ ์ผ์–ด๋‚ฌ๋‹ค. ๋ฐ˜๋ฉด LCO ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ๋กœ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜๋Š” ICR 18650-26J ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” 3๊ฐœ์˜ peak ์ง€์ ๋“ค(P1~P3)์„ ๊ฐ€์กŒ์œผ๋ฉฐ 3.7V ์ฃผ๋ณ€์˜ P2์—์„œ ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ IC ๊ณก์„ ์˜ ๋ณ€ํ™”๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ์‹ฌํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ, INR 18650-25R๊ณผ INR 18650-29E์™€ ๋‹ฌ๋ฆฌ 3๊ฐœ์˜ peak๋งŒ ํฌ์ฐฉ๋˜๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์— peak์˜ IC๊ฐ’์ด ํฐ ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Š” IC ๊ณก์„  ์•„๋ž˜์˜ ๋ฉด์ ์ด ์ถฉ์ „์šฉ๋Ÿ‰์„ ์˜๋ฏธํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ํ•ด์„ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. 3๊ฐœ์˜ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋ชจ๋‘ ๋น„์Šทํ•œ ๊ณต์นญ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰์„ ๊ฐ€์ง€๊ณ  ์žˆ์ง€๋งŒ INR 18650-29E ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์™€๋Š” ๋‹ฌ๋ฆฌ 3๊ฐœ์˜ peak๋งŒ ํฌ์ฐฉ๋˜๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์— ๊ฐ peak๊ฐ€ ๋” ๋†’์€ IC๊ฐ’์„ ๊ฐ€์ง€๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์ด๋‹ค. ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ IC ๊ณก์„ ์˜ ๋†’์ด ๋ณ€ํ™”๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ํฌ๊ฒŒ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•œ peak ์ง€์ ์„ ๋น„๊ตํ•ด ๋ณด๋ฉด NCM ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ์ตœ๋Œ€ ์ „์•• ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  LCO ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ๊ณต์นญ ์ „์•• ๋ถ€๊ทผ์— ์œ„์น˜ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ์ตœ๋Œ€ peak ์ง€์ ์„ ๋น„๊ตํ•ด ๋ณด๋ฉด INR 18650-25R, ICR 18650- 26J, INR 18650-29E๋Š” P2, P3, P4๋กœ ๊ฐ๊ธฐ ๋‹ฌ๋ž๋‹ค. INR 18650-25R, INR 18650-29E ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  INR 18650-25R ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋“ค์€ ๋ชจ๋‘ ๋…ธํ™”๊ฐ€ ์ง„ํ–‰๋จ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ๊ณก์„  ์•„๋ž˜์˜ ์ „์ฒด ๋ฉด์ ์ด ์ค„์—ˆ๋‹ค. Fig. 4์˜ IC ๊ณก์„ ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด์„œ ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ์˜ ์ข…๋ฅ˜์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ peak์˜ ์ˆ˜, ์ตœ๋Œ€ peak ์ง€์ , ๊ณก์„ ์˜ ๋†’์ด ๋ณ€ํ™”๊ฐ€ ์ตœ๋Œ€์ธ peak ์ง€์ , ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ํฌ๊ธฐ์™€ ๋ฉด์ ์˜ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋Ÿ‰์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์„œ๋กœ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ํŠน์ง•์ด ๋ถ„์„๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด์ค‘ ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ํฌ๊ธฐ์™€ ๋ฉด์ ์˜ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ž‘์€ ์—ดํ™”๋ชจ๋“œ์ธ LLI์™€ LAM๋ฅผ ๊ณ„์‚ฐํ•  ๋•Œ ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋œ๋‹ค. IC ๊ณก์„ ์˜ ๋ถ„์„์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ํ•ด์„ํ•œ ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ๋น„๊ต๋Š” Table 2์— ์ฃผ์–ด์ง„๋‹ค.

Fig. 4. IC curves: (a) INR 18650-25R, (b) ICR 18650โ€“26J, (c) INR 18650-29E

../../Resources/kiiee/JIEIE.2024.38.6.445/fig4.png

Table 2. Comparison of aging characteristics of three cathode batteries through the IC curves

Battery

INR 18650-25R

ICR 18650-26J

INR 18650-29E

Cathode material

NCMA

LCO

NCM

Number of Pn

4

3

4

Maximum Pn

P2

(3.65V)

P3

(3.74V)

P4

(4.14V)

Pn of maximum curve change

P4

(4.11V)

P2

(3.67V)

P4

(4.14V)

4. ICA๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•œ DM ๋ถ„์„

๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋‚ด๋ถ€์—์„œ ๋ฆฌํŠฌ ์ด์˜จ๊ณผ ์ „์ž๊ฐ€ ์‚ฝ์ž… ๋ฐ ํƒˆ๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ๋ฐ˜๋ณตํ•˜๋ฉฐ ์ „๊ทน์˜ ๊ตฌ์กฐ์ ์ธ ์—ดํ™”, ๋ฆฌํŠฌ ํ”Œ๋ ˆ์ดํŒ… ํ˜„์ƒ ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ์ „๊ทน ๊ตฌ์กฐ ์—ดํ™”์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ํ˜„์ƒ์ด ์ผ์–ด๋‚œ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Š” ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์„ฑ๋Šฅ ์ €ํ•˜๋กœ ์ด์–ด์ง€๋ฉฐ ํ™”ํ•™์  ๋ฐ ๋ฌผ๋ฆฌ์  ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ์ผ์œผ์ผœ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰ ๊ฐ์†Œ์™€ ์ถœ๋ ฅ ์ €ํ•˜๋ฅผ ์œ ๋ฐœํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋ฆฌํŠฌ์ด์˜จ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ๋…ธํ™” ๋ถ„๋ฅ˜์˜ ๊ธฐ์ค€์œผ๋กœ LAM๊ณผ LLI์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค. LAM์€ ์ „๊ทน์˜ ๊ตฌ์กฐ์ ์ธ ์—ดํ™”๋กœ ์ธํ•œ ํ™œ๋ฌผ์งˆ์˜ ์†์‹ค์ด ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜๋Š” ์—ดํ™”๋ชจ๋“œ์ด๋‹ค. ์ด๋Š” ์ „๊ทน์ด ๋ฆฌํŠฌ ์ด์˜จ์˜ ์ด๋™์„ ๋ฐฉํ•ดํ•˜๊ณ  ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰ ๋ฐ ์ „๋ ฅ ์ €ํ•˜๋ฅผ ์ดˆ๋ž˜ํ•œ๋‹ค[13]. LLI๋Š” SEI(Solid Electrolyte Interphase) ์ธต ์„ฑ์žฅ ๋˜๋Š” ๋ฆฌํŠฌ ํ”Œ๋ ˆ์ดํŒ…๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์€ ํ™”ํ•™์  ๊ณ ์ฐฉํ™” ํ˜„์ƒ์— ์˜ํ•ด ๋ฆฌํŠฌ์ด์˜จ์›์ด ์†Œ๋ชจ๋˜๋Š” ์—ดํ™”๋ชจ๋“œ์ด๋‹ค. ์ด๋กœ ์ธํ•ด ๋‚ด๋ถ€์ €ํ•ญ์ด ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜๊ณ  ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰ ์ €ํ•˜๋ฅผ ์ดˆ๋ž˜ํ•œ๋‹ค[9, 20]. LAM๊ณผ LLI๋Š” ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋…ธํ™” ์‹คํ—˜์„ ํ†ตํ•ด์„œ ์–ป์€ ์ฆ๋ถ„์šฉ๋Ÿ‰ ๊ณก์„ ๊ณผ ์—ฐ๊ด€์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค[21]. LLI๋Š” IC ๊ณก์„ ์˜ peak์˜ ๋ณ€ํ™” ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  LAM์€ IC ๊ณก์„ ์˜ area ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด์„œ ์ˆ˜์‹ (2), (3)์„ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ๊ณ„์‚ฐํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค[10].

(2)
$LLI_{i}=\dfrac{\max(Q)_{1}-\max(Q)_{i}}{\max(Q)_{1}}\times 100\%$
(3)
$LAM_{i}=\dfrac{\max(\dfrac{\triangle Q}{\triangle V})_{1}-\max(\dfrac{\triangle Q}{\triangle V})_{i}}{\max(\dfrac{\triangle Q}{\triangle V})_{1}}\times 100\%$

์—ฌ๊ธฐ์„œ ์•„๋ž˜ ์ฒจ์ž i๋Š” i ๋ฒˆ์งธ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์‚ฌ์ดํด์„ ์˜๋ฏธํ•œ๋‹ค. max(โ–ณQ/โ–ณV)์™€ max(Q) ๋Š” ๊ฐ๊ฐ IC ๊ณก์„ ์—์„œ์˜ ์ตœ๋Œ“๊ฐ’๊ณผ ์ตœ๋Œ€ ๋ฉด์  ๋„“์ด๋ฅผ ์˜๋ฏธํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ LLIi๋Š” ์ฒซ ๋ฒˆ์งธ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์‚ฌ์ดํด๊ณผ i ๋ฒˆ์งธ ์‚ฌ์ดํด์˜ ๋ฉด์  ๋ณ€ํ™”๋Ÿ‰์„ ์˜๋ฏธํ•˜๊ณ  LAMi๋Š” ์ฒซ ๋ฒˆ์งธ ์‚ฌ์ดํด๊ณผ i ๋ฒˆ์งธ ์‚ฌ์ดํด์˜ ์ตœ๋Œ“๊ฐ’์˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋Ÿ‰์„ ์˜๋ฏธํ•œ๋‹ค.

Fig. 5์™€ Table 3์€ Fig. 4์˜ IC๊ณก์„ ์˜ ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ๋“ค์„ (3)๊ณผ (4)์‹์— ๋Œ€์ž…ํ•˜์—ฌ ๊ณ„์‚ฐํ•œ LAM i์™€ LLI i์˜ ๊ฐ’์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ธ๋‹ค. ์„ธ ์ข…๋ฅ˜์˜ ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋ชจ๋‘ LLI i๋Š” 100์‚ฌ์ดํด๊นŒ์ง€ ์„ ํ˜•์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜์˜€์œผ๋ฉฐ LAM i์€ ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ๋งˆ๋‹ค ๊ฐ๊ธฐ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ํŠน์ง•์„ ๊ฐ€์กŒ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ, INR 18650-25R๊ณผ ICR 18650-26J๋Š” ๋…ธํ™”๊ฐ€ ์ง„ํ–‰๋ ์ˆ˜๋ก LAM i์ด LLI i๋ณด๋‹ค ์ปธ์œผ๋ฉฐ ์ด๊ฒƒ์€ ํ™œ๋ฌผ์งˆ์ด ๋ฆฌํŠฌ์ด์˜จ์›๋ณด๋‹ค ์†์‹ค์˜ ๋น„์œจ์ด ๋” ํฌ๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ์•Œ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. INR 18650-25R๋Š” ์ฒซ ๋ฒˆ์งธ ์‚ฌ์ดํด๋ถ€ํ„ฐ ๋ฐฑ ๋ฒˆ์งธ ์‚ฌ์ดํด๊นŒ์ง€ LAM100์ด 5.1909% ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  LLI100๊ฐ€ 4.0448%๋กœ ์„ธ ๊ฐ€์ง€ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์ค‘ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ํฐ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ๋ณด์˜€๋‹ค. ์ด๋Š” ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ๋“ค์— ๋น„ํ•˜์—ฌ NCMA ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ๊ฐ€ ํ™œ๋ฌผ์งˆ๊ณผ ๋ฆฌํŠฌ์ด์˜จ์›์˜ ์†์‹ค์ด ๋น ๋ฅด๊ฒŒ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜์—ฌ ๋…ธํ™” ์ •๋„๊ฐ€ ํฌ๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ์•Œ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ICR 18650-26J๋Š” LAM100์ด 5.0484%๋กœ ๋†’์•˜์œผ๋‚˜ LLI100๋Š” 2.6869%๋กœ ์„ธ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์ค‘ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ๋‚ฎ์•˜๋‹ค. ์ด๊ฒƒ์€ ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰ ๊ฐ์†Œ ๊ฒฝํ–ฅ์€ ํฌ์ง€๋งŒ ๋‚ด๋ถ€ ์ €ํ•ญ์˜ ์ฆ๊ฐ€๋Š” ๋ฏธ๋ฏธํ•จ์„ ์˜๋ฏธํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ด๊ฒƒ์€ ๋…ธํ™” ์‹œ ๋น ๋ฅธ ์šฉ๋Ÿ‰ ๊ฐ์†Œ๋ฅผ ๋ณด์ด๋Š” LCO ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ํŠน์ง•์„ ๋ฐ˜์˜ํ•œ๋‹ค[22]. INR 18650-29E๋Š” ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋“ค์— ๋น„ํ•ด LAM100์˜ ๋ณ€ํ™”๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ๋‚ฎ์•˜์œผ๋ฉฐ NCMA ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์— ๋น„ํ•ด 1.992%์˜ ์ ์€ ๋ณ€ํ™”์œจ์„ ๋ณด์˜€๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ 70์‚ฌ์ดํด๋ถ€ํ„ฐ๋Š” LAMi์˜ ๋ณ€ํ™”๊ฐ€ ๋ฏธ๋ฏธํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Š” ํ™œ๋ฌผ์งˆ ์†์‹ค์— ์˜ํ•œ ๋…ธํ™” ์†๋„๊ฐ€ ์ค„์–ด๋“ฆ์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ธ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ NCM ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ LLI100๋Š” 3.7742%์œผ๋กœ NCMA ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ์— ๋น„ํ•˜์—ฌ ์ž‘์•˜์œผ๋‚˜ LCO ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋ณด๋‹ค๋Š” ์ปธ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Š” LCO ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ NCM๊ณ„์—ด์˜ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋ณด๋‹ค ๋‚ด๋ถ€์ €ํ•ญ ์ฆ๊ฐ€๋Ÿ‰์ด ์ž‘๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ์˜๋ฏธํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ, NCM ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ NCMA ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋ณด๋‹ค LLI100์™€ LAM100์ด ๋ชจ๋‘ ์ž‘์œผ๋ฏ€๋กœ ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋” ๊ฐ•ํ•œ ๊ฒƒ์œผ๋กœ ๋ถ„์„๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค.

Fig. 5. LAM and LLI: (a) INR 18650-25R, (b) ICR 18650โ€“26J, and (c) INR 18650-29E

../../Resources/kiiee/JIEIE.2024.38.6.445/fig5.png

Table 3. Battery LAM and LLI data

Battery

INR 18650-25R

ICR 18650-26J

INR 18650-29E

Cathode material

NCMA

LCO

NCM

LAM100 [%]

5.1909

5.0484

3.1989

LLI100 [%]

4.0448

2.6869

3.7742

5. ๊ฒฐ ๋ก 

๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ๋Š” ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ๋ณ„ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋…ธํ™” ํŠน์„ฑ์„ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด NCM๊ณผ NCA ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ๊ฐ€ ํ˜ผํ•ฉ๋œ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ(INR 18650-25R), LCO ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ(ICR 18650-26J), NCM ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ(INR 18650-29E)๋ฅผ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ด 100์‚ฌ์ดํด์˜ ๋…ธํ™” ์‹คํ—˜์—์„œ CC ์ถฉ์ „ ๊ตฌ๊ฐ„ ๋™์•ˆ ์ธก์ •๋œ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์ „์••๊ณผ ์ „๋ฅ˜ ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ๋ฅผ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ IC ๊ณก์„ ์„ ์–ป์—ˆ๋‹ค. IC ๊ณก์„ ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด์„œ ์–‘๊ทน์žฌ์˜ ์ข…๋ฅ˜์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ peak์˜ ์ˆ˜, ์ตœ๋Œ€ peak ์ง€์ , ๊ณก์„ ์˜ ๋†’์ด ๋ณ€ํ™”๊ฐ€ ์ตœ๋Œ€์ธ peak ์ง€์ , ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ํฌ๊ธฐ์™€ ๋ฉด์ ์˜ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋Ÿ‰์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์„œ๋กœ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ํŠน์ง•์ด ๋ถ„์„๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ๋ฆฌํŠฌ์ด์˜จ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ๋…ธํ™” ๋ถ„๋ฅ˜์˜ ๊ธฐ์ค€์œผ๋กœ LAM๊ณผ LLI๋ฅผ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜์˜€์œผ๋ฉฐ LLI i๋Š” IC ๊ณก์„ ์˜ peak์˜ ๋ณ€ํ™” ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  LAM i์€ IC ๊ณก์„ ์˜ area ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ์ด์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ๊ณ„์‚ฐ๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ์‹คํ—˜๊ฒฐ๊ณผ, LCO ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” NCM ๊ณ„์—ด์˜ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋“ค๋ณด๋‹ค ๋ฆฌํŠฌ์ด์˜จ์›์˜ ์†์‹ค์ด ์ž‘์•˜์œผ๋ฉฐ NCM ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” NCMA ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋ณด๋‹ค ๋…ธํ™”์— ๋” ๊ฐ•ํ•œ ๊ฒƒ์œผ๋กœ ๋ถ„์„๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ๋…ธํ™” ํŠน์„ฑ์„ ๋น„๊ตํ•จ์œผ๋กœ์จ ๊ฐ ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ์˜ ์žฅ๋‹จ์ ์„ ํŒŒ์•…ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Š” ๋ฐฐํ„ฐ๋ฆฌ ์„ ํƒ ๋ฐ ์‚ฌ์šฉ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ •๋ณด๋ฅผ ์ œ๊ณตํ•˜๋ฉฐ, ํ–ฅํ›„ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๋ฐ ์‘์šฉ์— ๊ธฐ์—ฌํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ์ž๋ฃŒ๋กœ ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์„ ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ค.

Acknowledgement

์ด ๋…ผ๋ฌธ์€ ์ถฉ๋ถ๋Œ€ํ•™๊ต ๊ตญ๋ฆฝ๋Œ€ํ•™์œก์„ฑ์‚ฌ์—…(2023) ์ง€์›์„ ๋ฐ›์•„ ์ž‘์„ฑ๋˜์—ˆ์Œ.

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Biography

Tae-Soon Park
../../Resources/kiiee/JIEIE.2024.38.6.445/au1.png

Since 2015, He has been B.S. degree in Electric Engineering from Chungbuk National University. His research interests include battery management systems, with a particular focus on battery degradation.

Yeon-Ho Choi
../../Resources/kiiee/JIEIE.2024.38.6.445/au2.png

He received a B.S. degree in electrical engineering from Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, South Korea, in 2022, and he is currently combined master and Doctoral degree with the school of electrical engineering, Chungbuk National University. His research interests include battery management system and state estimation algorithm.

Kyoung-Min Kwon
../../Resources/kiiee/JIEIE.2024.38.6.445/au3.png

He received B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Chungbuk National University in Cheongju, Korea in 2006, 2010, and 2020. He is working a Technical director at the R&D Center in Woojin Industrial System from 2009. His research interests are in ac motor drives with power converter/inverter systems, in power quality analysis, multilevel converter and energy storage systems.

Jae-Jung Yun
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He received the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang, South Korea, in 2012. He was a Senior Researcher with the Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology (SAIT), Suwon, South Korea, where he worked on developing power conversion systems for electric vehicles and renewable energy. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the School of Electrical Engineering, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju-si, South Korea. His research interests include battery management systems, the design and control of power conversion systems.